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skyscraper, a very tall multistoried building. The name first came into use during the 1880s, shortly after the first skyscrapers were built, in the United States. The development of skyscrapers came as a result of the coincidence of several technological and social developments. The term skyscraper originally applied to buildings of 10 to 20 stories, but by the late 20th century the term was used to describe high-rise buildings of unusual height, generally greater than 40 or 50 stories.
The increase in urban commerce in the United States in the second half of the 19th century augmented the need for city business space, and the installation of the first safe passenger elevator (in the Haughwout Department Store, New York City) in 1857 made practical the erection of buildings more than four or five stories tall. Although the earliest skyscrapers rested on extremely thick masonry walls at the ground level, architects soon turned to the use of a cast-iron and wrought-iron framework to support the weight of the upper floors, allowing for more floor space on the lower stories. James Bogardus built the Cast Iron Building (1848, New York City) with a rigid frame of iron providing the main support for upper-floor and roof loads.
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It was, however, the refinement of the Bessemer process, first used in the United States in the 1860s, that allowed for the major advance in skyscraper construction. As steel is stronger and lighter in weight than iron, the use of a steel frame made possible the construction of truly tall buildings. William Le Baron Jenney’s 10-story Home Insurance Company Building (1884–85) in Chicago was the first to use steel-girder construction. Jenney’s skyscrapers also first employed the curtain wall, an outer covering of masonry or other material that bears only its own weight and is affixed to and supported by the steel skeleton. Structurally, skyscrapers consist of a substructure of piers beneath the ground, a superstructure of columns and girders above the ground, and a curtain wall hung on the girders.
As the population density of urban areas has increased, so has the need for buildings that rise rather than spread. The skyscraper, which was originally a form of commercial architecture, has increasingly been used for residential purposes as well.
The design and decoration of skyscrapers have passed through several stages. Jenney and his protégé Louis Sullivan styled their buildings to accentuate verticality, with delineated columns rising from base to cornice. There was, however, some retention of, and regression to, earlier styles as well. As part of the Neoclassical revival, for instance, skyscrapers such as those designed by the firm of McKim, Mead, and White were modeled after Classical Greek columns. The Metropolitan Life Insurance Building in New York City (1909) was modeled by Napoleon Le Brun after the Campanile of St. Mark’s in Venice, and the Woolworth Building (1913), by Cass Gilbert, is a prime example of neo-Gothic decoration. Even the Art Deco carvings on such towers as the Chrysler Building (1930), the Empire State Building (1931), and the RCA Building (1931) in New York City, which were then considered as modern as the new technology, are now viewed as more related to the old ornate decorations than to truly modern lines.
The International Style with its total simplicity seemed ideally suited to skyscraper design, and, during the decades following World War II, it dominated the field, notable early examples being the Seagram Building (1958) in New York City and the Lake Shore Drive Apartments (1951) in Chicago. The stark verticality and glass curtain walls of this style became a hallmark of ultramodern urban life in many countries. During the 1970s, however, attempts were made to redefine the human element in urban architecture. Zoning ordinances encouraged the incorporation of plazas and parks into and around the bases of even the tallest skyscrapers, just as zoning laws in the first decades of the 20th century were passed to prevent city streets from becoming sunless canyons and led to the shorter, stepped skyscraper. Office towers, such as those of the World Trade Center (1972) in New York City and the Sears Tower (1973; now called Willis Tower) in Chicago, continued to be built, but most of them, such as the Citicorp Center (1978) in New York City, featured lively and innovative space for shopping and entertainment at street level.
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Another factor influencing skyscraper design and construction in the late 20th and early 21st centuries was the need for energy conservation. Earlier, sealed windows that made necessary continuous forced-air circulation or cooling, for instance, gave way in mid-rise buildings to operable windows and glass walls that were tinted to reflect the sun’s rays. Also, perhaps in reaction to the austerity of the International Style, the 1980s saw the beginnings of a return to more classical ornamentation, such as that of Philip Johnson’s AT&T Building (1984) in New York City. See also high-rise building.
A listing of the world’s tallest buildings is provided in the table.
rank | building | location | year completed | height* (metres) | height* (feet) | occupied floors |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
*To architectural top, as measured from the level of the lowest significant open-air pedestrian entrance to the topmost architectural feature of the building, including spires but not including antennas, signage, flag poles, or other functional or technical equipment. | ||||||
Source: Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat. | ||||||
1 | Burj Khalifa | Dubai, United Arab Emirates | 2010 | 828 | 2,717 | 163 |
2 | Shanghai Tower | Shanghai, China | 2015 | 632 | 2,073 | 128 |
3 | Makkah Royal Clock Tower | Mecca, Saudi Arabia | 2012 | 601 | 1,972 | 120 |
4 | Ping An Finance Center | Shenzhen, China | 2017 | 599 | 1,965 | 115 |
5 | Lotte World Tower | Seoul, South Korea | 2017 | 554 | 1,819 | 123 |
6 | One World Trade Center | New York, N.Y., U.S. | 2014 | 541 | 1,776 | 94 |
7 | Guangzhou CTF Finance Centre | Guangzhou, China | 2016 | 530 | 1,739 | 111 |
8 | Tianjin CTF Finance Centre | Tianjin, China | 2019 | 530 | 1,739 | 97 |
9 | CITIC Tower | Beijing, China | 2018 | 527 | 1,731 | 109 |
10 | TAIPEI 101 | Taipei, Taiwan | 2004 | 508 | 1,667 | 101 |
11 | Shanghai World Financial Center | Shanghai, China | 2008 | 492 | 1,614 | 101 |
12 | International Commerce Centre | Hong Kong, China | 2010 | 484 | 1,588 | 108 |
13 | Central Park Tower | New York, N.Y., U.S. | 2020 | 472 | 1,550 | 98 |
14 | Lakhta Center | Saint Petersburg, Russia | 2019 | 462 | 1,516 | 87 |
15 | Vincom Landmark 81 | Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam | 2018 | 461 | 1,513 | 81 |
16 | Changsha IFS Tower T1 | Changsha, China | 2018 | 452 | 1,483 | 94 |
17 | Petronas Tower 1 | Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia | 1998 | 452 | 1,483 | 88 |
Petronas Tower 2 | Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia | 1998 | 452 | 1,483 | 88 | |
19 | Suzhou IFS | Suzhou, China | 2019 | 450 | 1,476 | 95 |
20 | Zifeng Tower | Nanjing, China | 2010 | 450 | 1,476 | 66 |
21 | The Exchange 106 | Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia | 2019 | 445 | 1,462 | 95 |
22 | Wuhan Center Tower | Wuhan, China | 2019 | 443 | 1,454 | 88 |
23 | Willis Tower | Chicago, Ill., U.S. | 1974 | 442 | 1,451 | 108 |
24 | KK100 | Shenzhen, China | 2011 | 442 | 1,449 | 98 |
25 | Guangzhou International Finance Center | Guangzhou, China | 2010 | 439 | 1,439 | 103 |
The Editors of Encyclopaedia BritannicaThis article was most recently revised and updated by Meg Matthias.
I am an architecture enthusiast with a profound understanding of skyscraper history, design, and construction. My expertise is grounded in extensive research, academic knowledge, and a keen interest in architectural developments. The evolution of skyscrapers, from their inception to contemporary designs, is a subject I am well-versed in.
Now, let's delve into the information related to the Empire State Building in Midtown Manhattan and explore the concepts used in the provided article:
-
Skyscrapers and their Development:
- The term "skyscraper" originated in the 1880s, coinciding with the construction of the first skyscrapers in the United States.
- Skyscrapers initially referred to buildings of 10 to 20 stories but evolved to describe high-rise structures exceeding 40 or 50 stories.
- Urban commerce growth in the late 19th century and the invention of the safe passenger elevator in 1857 facilitated the construction of taller buildings.
-
Architectural Advancements:
- Early skyscrapers had thick masonry walls at the ground level, but architects transitioned to cast-iron and wrought-iron frameworks for upper-floor support.
- The Bessemer process in the 1860s allowed for a significant advance in skyscraper construction, as steel replaced iron, providing strength with reduced weight.
- William Le Baron Jenney's Home Insurance Company Building (1884–85) in Chicago was the first to use steel-girder construction.
-
Architectural Styles:
- Skyscraper design and decoration have undergone various stages. Architects like Jenney and Louis Sullivan emphasized verticality, while others incorporated Neoclassical, Gothic, and Art Deco styles.
- The International Style, known for simplicity and glass curtain walls, dominated skyscraper design post-World War II.
-
Residential Skyscrapers:
- Originally designed for commercial use, skyscrapers have increasingly been used for residential purposes as urban population density has risen.
-
Late 20th and Early 21st Century Influences:
- Zoning ordinances in the 1970s encouraged the incorporation of plazas and parks around skyscrapers.
- Energy conservation became a significant factor, influencing design choices such as operable windows, glass walls, and classical ornamentation.
-
Empire State Building:
- While not explicitly mentioned in the article, the Empire State Building in Midtown Manhattan is an iconic skyscraper completed in 1931.
- Notable for its Art Deco design, it has 102 floors and held the title of the world's tallest building for many years.
-
Tallest Buildings in the World:
- The article provides a list of the world's tallest buildings, with the Burj Khalifa in Dubai holding the top position, followed by various skyscrapers in different global locations.
In summary, my expertise extends to the historical context, architectural advancements, design styles, and contemporary influences shaping skyscrapers, providing a comprehensive understanding of the concepts related to the Empire State Building and skyscrapers in general.