Modern Japan came about in less than 40 years. (2024)

Prior to the Meiji Restoration in 1868, Japan had no railroads or even rickshaws. The city of Tokyo did not exist, and the topknot was still regarded as a quality fashion statement. A feudal society, Japan had isolated itself from much of the Western world during the Tokugawa period (1600–1868). Transformation of Japan from a third world society to a first world leader in technology took just 40 years.

The precursors for change were several- the arrival of the US in the form of Commodore Matthew Perry (NOT the actor from Friends), Japan’s capitulation to America’s demands for trade, and the eventual signing of the Treaty of Kanagawa in 1854. But foreign trade brought with it problems that the ruling shogun of the time were unable to address. The Tokugawa Shogunate was weak before the introduction of Western change. Leading members of the Satsuma han seized the palace in the name of the Emperor and abolished the Shogun. As a result, Restoration of Imperial Rule was instituted on January 3rd, 1868. This marked the end of the Tokugawa Shogunate and the birth of a new centralised government with the Emperor as its symbolic head. The Emperor was moved from Kyoto to the city of Edo which was renamed Tokyo, meaning ‘eastern capital’.

There were four main factors that Japan had in its favour that made modernization of the country faster. Japan’s island geography, a centralised government, investment in education and a sense of nationalism were all factors that allowed Japan to modernize in under half a century. By taking control of their own modernization, the new Meiji rule could Westernise on their terms, which would allow cultural practices and traditions to continue. The new leaders of Japan knew that time was against them to achieve these sweeping reformations, because their goal was not only modernity, but also security. The Meiji Restoration occurred in the midst of the encroachment of Western involvement into Eastern Asia’s relations with foreign countries. By examining the changes implemented under the Meiji Restoration, we can better understand how Japan was able to achieve modernisation so quickly.

Notably, much of the foundation work for the Meiji Restoration was achieved during the Tokugawa Shogunate. Without this foundation, the modernization of Japan would have been much slower. Despite self-imposed ‘isolation’, during the Tokugawa Era, Japan wasn’t oblivious to the advancements of the West. However, in 1853 when U.S. Commodore Matthew Perry’s fleet of ‘black ships’ arrived on their shores, the Japanese were surprised at the degree of the West’s development, particularly in terms of military weapons and ship building. Perry was sent to Japan by US President Millard Fillmore with a letter of politely phrased demands to Japan. President Fillmore’s ‘requests’ included: safe harbour for any US ship that became shipwrecked on the Japanese coastline, the right to buy coal from Japan and to engage in trade with Japan. These requests were backed by thinly veiled threats of hostility. Realising that their weaponry was no match for the superior firepower of the West, the Japanese had little choice but to comply. During the period that Japan was ‘isolated’, it actually engaged in international trade, but only with the Dutch and the Chinese. The Japanese government had seen the unequal treaties forced upon China by Western powers. Control of China was divided up amongst different colonial powers. To avoid similar treatment, it was in Japan’s best interests to strike a deal. When Japan was faced with these demands of the US, the Tokugawa Shogunate was in power and resisted efforts to ‘open’ Japan up to foreign trade — a decision that led to bloodshed. The shogunate was eventually overthrown, and the new Meiji Government assumed control.

Indeed, it was the Meiji Government that introduced the West to Japan — and Japan to the West. Yet the new Meiji regime was burdened with a ‘crisis of security’. They felt that the introduction of foreigners threatened Japanese traditions. Hence the urgency to achieve modernization rapidly — and on their own terms. In brief, the Meiji Restoration was not so much a ‘revolution’, but a change carried out in the name of old values.

Japan’s geography was one of its biggest assets when it came to being able to modernize Japan to Western standards quickly. Japan was able to focus on modernization more easily than a country that was constantly fighting off wars or takeover attempts from neighbouring countries. The lack of conflict with neighbouring nations enabled the samurai class to work as bureaucrats. This enhanced the regard for education in Japanese society. Furthermore, it resulted in a ‘peace-dividend’. Farmers no longer had to grow crops to feed armies and therefore had a greater incentive to be productive. Farmers could afford to buy metal tools as there was less demand for metal weapons. Enemy incursions were no longer a threat, so bridges and roads could be built. Another advantage of Japan’s geographical isolation was the preservation of Japanese crafts known as kogei. Traditional Japanese crafts were of great use as Japan began to import foreign technology in an effect to modernize and industrialise. Kogei now become popular export products, and increased production in these areas helped to boost trade and ensure that many traditional craftsmen kept their jobs.

Japan’s centralised government was a primary reason that the country could achieve modernization in a relatively short time. In the first half of the Meiji period, key political figures certainly believed in progress. Progress included consolidating Japanese territory under a single authority and converting the government into an increasingly “public” political structure. Initially, the new Meiji government was bankrupt and adopted a three-pronged strategy of increasing revenue, cutting expenditure, and creating the institutions of a market economy. One of the earliest actions of the new Meiji government was to order a specie-minting machine from the UK in 1868. Several officials at the Ministry of Finance had visited the US to study their banking system and recommended that Japan adopt the same. Some of the currency in Japan at the time of the Meiji Restoration had its value assigned to it by the government. This was considered quite advanced at the time. In the initial response to the influx of Western thought, ideals and models there was an urgent program to transform thought and opinion. The new government was determined to mobilise the nation and boldly encouraged rapid change. It was a Japanese scholar who summed the situation up so succinctly: “in the inheritance from Tokugawa to Meiji Japan, what proved harmful and an obstacle to achieving the goal of an enriched and strong country was abolished as convention; what proved useful was kept as tradition”. Trains and horse-drawn carriages began to form part of the landscape. The invention of the rickshaw in around 1869 represented Japanese innovation. The merchant class benefitted greatly from the new investment in infrastructure. Now they could exploit and transport resources that had been inaccessible. Western powers had forced Japan to set their tariff rate at 5% which meant that factory owners could import raw resources cheaply from Europe. This combined with simplified business laws, cemented Japan’s new status as a manufacturing hub. The growth in employment under the Meiji government led to more jobs and higher wages, which helped to cement Japan’s status as a newly developed nation. The new government of Japan could have chosen to fight Western demands or comply only reluctantly with international pressure to modernize. But instead, the Meiji Government chose to study ideas on capitalism and technology from other parts of the globe. This almost certainly sped up the process of modernisation. Rather than ‘reinventing the wheel’, and facing a time-consuming process of trial and error, the Meiji government were able to save time by simply choosing the best models from different nations. It was agreed that the government was best organised similarly to Germany, with its emphasis on a strong central authority. Integral in leading successful change in the Meiji era were a group of five samurai from the Chōshū domain. In the last days of the Tokugawa Shogunate, the five samurai travelled covertly to Britain in order to study Western technology and bring it back to Japan. A centralised government and the introduction of prefectures to be administered by governors appointed by the central government was an important factor in Japan’s rapid economic development.

Meiji Japan’s high literacy and education standards also contributed to the nation’s ability to modernize rapidly. Compared to many developing countries today, Meiji Japan focused heavily on education. Under the Tokugawa Shogunate, elementary schooling was available, even for commoners. After the Meiji Restoration, the new government started building public schools to provide education to all. Universal literacy was of great importance. Citizens were now able to choose their own careers and obtain the skills necessary to be included in a new and modern workforce. In turn, educated citizens were now able to travel abroad to study in other countries such as North America and Europe. Their time spent abroad meant that they could bring back new knowledge to boost innovation at home. Universal education, and the introduction of Emperor Meiji’s Charter Oath meant that it was now possible for any Japanese citizen to rise up and achieve economic success. The reading of newspapers was encouraged by the government drastically dropping the postage rates. By which the government hoped to nurture nationalism by instilling in each citizen a sense of being a part of the national entity. In the final years of the Tokugawa shogunate, demand for Dutch and Chinese translators was waning, while the demand for English translators was increasing. The Meiji government employed over 3000 foreign advisors to introduce Western knowledge to the Japanese people and train them in new skills. This was at a time before many Japanese had the opportunity to travel overseas to learn new skills or to learn from domestically trained Japanese in their own country. Translation now became of heightened importance. In Meiji Japan’s quest for modernisation, there was now an increased emphasis on the need to learn from non-Japanese works. Officials in Chōshū, Satsuma, and Hizen witnessed an increase in the number of foreign ships in Japanese waters. This convinced them of the need to study Western medical and military technology from skilled translators. The education reforms enacted by the Meiji Government were swift. A jump in the number of literate and educated citizens within a relatively short period of time almost certainly helped to achieve modernization faster.

The strong sense of nationalism present amongst Japan’s population combined with their relative hom*ogeneity helped to accelerate the modernization process. Aside from the small areas of Ainu and Ryukyuans, the whole population of Japan spoke the one language and followed similar customs. With no states or factions warring between themselves, the whole country was easier to control under the one government. Obtaining widespread support for the impending changes of the Meiji Restoration was vital. The Japanese people called this period go-isshin, meaning ‘great renewal’. They understood that what was happening was not a step backwards, but instead a great leap forwards. A sense of intensive nationalism was widespread amongst the Japanese people, particularly when their way of life was perceived to be under threat by the first ships arriving from the West. The danger of interference from the West helped to unite the people. It was this confidence in the population’s loyalty to the country that gave the Meiji government the confidence to enact reforms that they knew would be painful. Major change requires major finance.

Samurai had always been entitled to a stipend from the government for their service. This was ended in 1876. Despite many of them being samurai themselves, the Meiji elite chose to take this unpopular step as a way of contributing to making Japan a modern nation. The Satsuma Rebellion of 1877 saw the end of the samurai class and dashed the hopes of those citizens who still envisaged a return to feudalism. The government’s victory helped to propel a widespread strong will to embrace change within all echelons of Japanese society. It was now clear to all that military resistance to the societal changes accompanying modernization was futile and citizens had no choice but to band together. In a further commitment to seeing their country succeed, in many cases, when the government lacked the funds to establish a public school in a certain area, landlords would come forward and give a large donation for the cause. Ultimately, the Japanese wanted to be seen as equals with the rest of the world.

To win the recognition of the West and convince them to change the unequal treaties the Japanese had been forced to sign early in the Meiji era, Japan eventually changed its entire legal system. After much negotiation, the Western nations agreed to revise the treaties in 1894, acknowledging Japan as an equal power (at least in principle). By encouraging Japanese citizens to accept Western ways quickly, it would send the message that Japanese were their equals, and no longer a third world nation to be looked down upon. Interestingly, in China during the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911), a similar use of ‘imperial legitimacy’ to gain popular support for countrywide transformation to meet the challenge of the West proved to be impossible. It is likely that China was not able to succeed as Japan had because they were being led by a foreign power- the Manchus. Had the plan for social and political transformation in China been led by their own people as was the case in Japan, the outcome may have been very different. Therefore, the role that nationalism played in Japan’s rapid modernization cannot be dismissed.

Japan’s modernization during the Meiji Restoration was achieved in a much shorter time than expected. Japan’s island geography, a centralised government, investment in education and a sense of nationalism were all factors that accelerated Japan’s rapid change. By investing in education, learning from more developed nations, encouraging its citizens to work together and developing effective infrastructure, Japan was able to transform itself from a feudal society into a modern first world country within four decades. The majority of Japan’s citizens now enjoy living standards on par with the world’s wealthiest countries. Unquestionably, the most essential factor in modernization is a general willingness from every facet of society to accept change and move forward. This combined with a government’s implementation of the right social and economic policies are the most vital factors for modernization success. The modernization of Japan during the Meiji Restoration was achieved rapidly, relatively peacefully and could not have taken place without widespread co-operation from its people. By the time that Emperor Meiji died in 1912, the formerly reclusive nation of Japan had embraced technology and was a major player on the international stage.

*disclaimer: The above was written by me as part of a University subject that I undertook in late 2019. You will see by the publication date here that the essay was already submitted and graded, results were released, and the term was well and truly over by the time I shared it here. Thanks must go to beautiful Anthony- my friend and proofreader.*

Bibliography (Because, let’s face it, I couldn’t have written this alone).

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