Chinese in Jamaica
Shortly after Emancipation, the English Plantation owners realized that the African descendants having been freed from slavery were reluctant to work on the sugar estate. Based on this realization, they decided to import Chinese and East Indians to work for them.
By 1854, the first group of four hundred and seventy two (472) Chinese come to
In 1905, the Jamaican Government noticed the increased population of Chinese immigrants and passed a law that restricted entry to the country ifcertain criteria were not met. The law passed emphasized three main areas:
Immigrants had to be registered with immigration authorities before entry.
Immigrants had to have a guarantor from a reliable shop. This guarantor should be able to prove that the immigrant is law-abiding and will not be a burden on society.
- Having arrived in
the authorities need to know their address and contact information. From this point onward the immigration law had become very strict. Jamaica
By 1930, there were four thousand Chinese immigrants in
The immigrants having to successfully pass a written and oral English Language test;
Paying a fee before entry;
Doing a medical examination which should prove whether or not the immigrant is physically fit and healthy.
After their contracts had expired many were reluctant to return to
In 1880, many of those who had remained in Jamaica started retail businesses trading in grocery items with a few shops set up in
By 1954, there were over one thousand commercial establishments owned by the Chinese. In 1970 the number amounted to .7 percent of
The Chinese, were noted for their acumen business and for the caring and nurturing of their children placing great emphasis on education and family life. To date, these characteristics have positively impacted the Jamaican society. Over the years the Chinese became integrated in many professions such as law, medicine, business, retailers, civil servants and teachers, while others remained wage earners in the banking and manufacturing sectors. Jamaican Chinese are greatly admired for being hardworking, diligent and courteous. They have added another dimension to the plurality of the cultural heritage of
References
Chen, Julie. “The Chinese in
Yap, Stephen. “The Chinese Community”.The West Indian Review. [] 1954.
Christmas Jamaican Style
JONKONNU
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Dances
Emancipation Proclamation
Some of these are as follows:
Most planters insisted that the ex-slaves worked eight hours daily.
Many refused to continue the allowance of food and provision grounds and the newly freed people had to pay for them by working extra time.
High prices were placed on apprentices to make it more difficult for them to buy their freedom.
Masters drove and punished apprentices more brutally than in slavery. The argument to support this type of behaviour was that the newly freed people would retire to the hills, therefore the planters had to hold on to a large labour force for as long as possible. To go even further, they began preparing to strengthen the labour force by importation of indentured labourers. This scheme failed miserably as many died from local diseases and some left the estates for domestic work, some joined the Police Force, while others returned home.
The planter either refused to sell surplus and marginal estate land or they charged high, even exorbitant prices for small plots.
The Legislature instituted costly licences for the sale of small quantities of manufactured sugar and coffee.
They levied taxes, which discriminated against owners of small plots.
The planters devised the system of tenancy, which compelled the freed people to work steadily and continually on the estates, in return for secure residence in the house and grounds, which they occupied as slaves. Consequently insecurity of tenure as well as relatively low wages and high rental forced these persons to seek new and better opportunities away from the estates.
The Local Legislature and the Colonial Office feared that expansion of a Jamaican peasantry would ruin the Sugar Industry by creating labour shortages, thus did little to promote development.
Fire at Port Royal
History of Radio Broadcasting in Jamaica
The initiation of radio broadcasting in Jamaica is synonymous with Radio Jamaica Limited, more popularly known as RJR. However, this development which officially started in 1940, for the most part has its origins in the radio broadcasting undertakings of John Grinan, an amateur radio operator (also referred to as ‘ham’ operator) at the time. Since then, radio broadcasting in the country has been transformed not only in terms of communications technology, but also content and program formatting.
In the year 1939, the start of the Second World War, Mr. Grinan’s amateur radio station NJ2PZ (subsequently changed to VP5PZ), which he had established at 2 Sea View Avenue in St. Andrew, was called into official service by Governor Sir Arthur Richards. This was partly the result of the need to communicate War related information, such as those concerning prices of food and other necessities set by the relevant authorities. The first broadcast was made on the 17th day of November 1939. Initially, the station operated on 4.8 megacycles on the 60 metre band and the duration of broadcasts was relatively short, lasting for approximately one hour; as the station matured it went beyond that. By 1947, the hours of daytime broadcast had reached as far as four hours.
John Grinan was to remain owner of NJ2PZ for a short while after it was called into official service, as in late 1939 he gifted the station to the government of Jamaica which subsequently changed the station’s name to ZQI. A day after the handover, the story made headlines in the local newspapers. At this juncture, Mr. Dennis M. Gick, an English man, became the chief manager of the station and the broadcasting content went beyond that of War related information to involve musical entertainment.
On experiencing and forecasting high financial costs associated with operating the station, the government decided to venture into commercial broadcasting and in 1949 franchised it to the Jamaica Broadcasting Company (JBC) - a subsidiary of a British radio organization. After much deliberation and negotiation, the Company was granted a ten year license from the Government which stipulated terms and conditions of operation.
Jamaica Broadcasting Company began its operation of ZQI in July of 1950 at the said location, 2 Sea View Avenue, but later relocated to its studio that was being built at 32 Lindhurst Road in the Cross Roads Area, in August 1951. In addition to relocating the station, JBC also changed the station’s name to Radio Jamaica and Rediffusion (RJR) when it commenced Rediffusion service (the communication of local and foreign station programs to subscribers through the use of wires) programs in 1951. Later, the Rediffusion was dropped from its name. By this time there had been a drastic increase in radio headsets as well as listenership, the former over 22,920 and the latter surpassing 100,000.
After almost close to a decade of operation, the Jamaica Broadcasting Company changed its name to Radio Jamaica Limited in 1959, around the same time of the formation of the Jamaica Broadcasting Corporation (JBC) by the Government. The name change resulted from an effort to prevent conflict between the two entities. As mentioned by Lester Spaulding (one of the more prominent figures in RJR’s history) during an interview published by the Jamaica Gleaner on July 21, 2010, “RJR used to be called Jamaica Broadcasting Company and when the Government decided to start the Jamaica Broadcasting Corporation [JBC], we had to change our name to RJR to make way for the new station” (2).
Prior to the 1970s, RJR and JBC provided A.M. transmission services with daily intermissions (more popularly known as sign off and sign on). However, as radio broadcasting technology developed, listeners could avail themselves of not only A.M. but F.M. transmission provided by both stations for the entire day. Radio broadcast format was virtually transformed as it became more encompassing and diverse. Notable historical events that were broadcasted by means of radio includes: the visit of Her Majesty the Queen in 1953; and commentary regarding the West Indies Federation Referendum in 1961.
Subsequent to its establishment in 1959, JBC Radio was divested to RJR in 1997. The 1990s also saw the establishment of a number of radio stations including Irie F.M. (1990), Power 106 F.M. (1992), and Love F.M. (1993). Today there are more than twenty radio stations in operation.
References
‘Government’s Proposals for the Development of the Local Station.’ The Daily Gleaner, 20 March 1940.
Graham, Tom. Kingston 100 years. Kingston: Tom Graham Publications.
‘Jamaica Broadcasting Co. Official Says Plans Complete for Efficient Service.’ The Daily Gleaner. 16 June 1949.
‘Prices of Food Being Broadcast.’ The Daily Gleaner. 15 November 1939.
‘Lester Spaulding - RJR: Six Decades and Counting.’ The Gleaner. 21 July 2010, p.2.
Senior, Olive. Encyclopedia of Jamaican heritage. St. Andrew: Twin Guinep Publishers Ltd, 2003.
‘The Radio, the Facts of the Case, Jamaica Broadcasting Co. Meets All Exco.’ The Daily Gleaner, 21 June 1949.
‘32 Years of RJR.’ The Daily News. 19 July 1982.
The History of the Post Office in Jamaica
Hopwood, Stephen. ‘300 Years of Postal Service’, in Jamaica Journal vol. 5, no. 2
Foster, Thomas. Highway Travelling Post Offices in
Foster, Thomas. 1968. The Postal History of
The History of Railroads/ways in Jamaica
Engine 54 on its last run, 1969 The floods, 1886
Up to the early 1840’s there were no railways in Jamaica as the many mountains made the laying of the rails a difficult job. The Jamaican Government also did not have sufficient funds for this venture.Two English brothers, William and David Smith, asked the Government to allow them to build the railway and this was to become the first railway in the British West Indies. They began building the railway in 1844 on a standard gauge line (i.e. 4’8 ½” between the inner rails), across the Liguanea Plains, from Kingston to Spanish Town. The survey plans and estimates for the line were prepared by James Anderson, a civil engineer of Edinburgh. The cost of the original undertaking, including buildings and rolling stock, was £222, 250.
By late 1845 the railway was completed and was subsequently opened on November 21, 1845 by the Governor, Lord Elgin. Invited were, His Excellency the Governor, the Lieutenant Governor, several heads of departments, civil and military personnel, the honourable members of the Council and Assembly, and a large number of wealthy and influential members of the community. The railway was 14 miles long and ran from Kingston to Spanish Town. The first engine was called “Projector” and it was run on steam. The band of the first West Indies Regiment took its stand in the last third class carriages and added to the festivity of the scene. People lined the route and cheered and waved as the train went by at a slow pace.
From its opening until 1879, the line was operated by the Jamaica Railway Company, owned by the Smith brothers. David Smith was the manager of the line and his brother William, the first civil engineer. The Government bought the railway company in 1879 after which they laid 24 ½” mile extensions from Old Harbour via May Pen to Porus and this was opened on February 26, 1885. An additional 14 ½” mile extension from Spanish Town to Angels to Bog Walk, to Linstead and then on to Ewarton, was opened on August 13th of the same year. In order to lay the line to Bog Walk, the Rio Cobre River had to be crossed. Four tunnels were built, the longest of which was the Gibraltar tunnel near Bog Walk, which is 730 yards long.
Despite the many lines which had been laid, the north coast of the island had still not been reached. The Government saw that they would not be able to pay for the laying of the lines across the mountains. Therefore, in 1890, they sold the company to the West Indian Improvement Company.
In 1894, the line to Montego Bay was opened. This line was 66 miles long and ran from Porus to Montego Bay. The line from Kingston to Montego Bay was now about 113 miles long and its tunnels were cut through rocks. The Port Antonio 54 mile extension from Bog Walk was reached in 1896. It included the 468 ft. bridge over the Rio Grande River. Until the opening of the new 780 ft. bridge at Sandy Gully, it was Jamaica’s longest railway bridge. The mountain lines were now all laid.
The construction of these lines created a vast drain on the resources of the West India Improvement Company and like the Smith Brothers they did not make the success of operating the railway as they had hoped. In 1896 and 1898 they defaulted on the first mortgage bonds. In 1898 the shareholders assumed control of the line, finally defaulting to the Government in April 1900. The end result was good for the government, it had sold the line at a handsome profit, had the two most difficult sections constructed for it, and now had control of the line again. It is interesting to note that the mountainsections of Jamaican railways are among the most difficult standard gauge mountain railways in the world.
In 1900, Mr. James Richmond took over as General Manager of the railway for the Government, and set about improving the operations of the system. More locomotives were ordered including three unusual Kitson-Mayer articulated locomotives. In 1907 the first of various classes of tender engines were ordered from the famous American firm of Baldwins. The total route mileage – i.e., place to place mileage, not counting sidings, was at this stage almost 185 miles. Many new lines were laid after the Government took over. In April 1913 a short spur line from Linstead to New Works was opened and was followed later in the year by a 13 mile line from May Pen, along the banks of the Rio Minho to Chapleton. The ten mile extension to Frankfield from Chapleton was authorized at the same time and the contract was awarded to the Canadian firm of Bedford Construction. It was to include a 400 yard tunnel and a 100 ft. high viaduct. The line was not to be opened, however, until 1925. In 1914, the 133 miles journey from Kingston to Montego Bay, took 7 ¾ hours.
1938 saw the introduction of diesel traction to the system, in the form of three diesel rail cars. During the World War, various engines were brought in by the U.S. Transportation Corps. Five large tender engines, the biggest work in Jamaica, were among these, along with a few small shunting engines. The War also saw the construction of two new lines- a two and a half mile line from Bodles to the U.S naval base at Port Esquivel and a six and a half mile line from Logans Junction, near May Pen to the U.S. Air Base at Fort Simmonds, now called Vernam Fields.
1958 saw the opening of a line from Linstead along the site of the original Ewarton line, to Pleasant Farm Alcan Bauxite Works some two miles away from Ewarton. Special hopper trains ran from there to Port Esquivel via Spanish Town. At Kirkvine, between Williamsfield and Kendal, a spur line was constructed to the Alcan Kirkvine Alumina Works. Trains also ran from there to Port Esquivel. From 1st May 1960, the Fort Simmonds line was closed and uprooted as the upper three miles of the line had been taken over by Alcan Jamaica Ltd., which set about constructing a line from Woodside to the Mocho area of Clarendon to carry Bauxite to Rocky Point. At Jacobs Hut, where the Montego Bay line crossed the Mandeville main road, the new lines met both. This crossing had already been the scene of many road/rail crashes, and as a result, flashing lights and boom barriers were installed to protect the crossing. This was also the only place on Jamaican Railways where semaphore signals had been installed to control train movements.
The Woodside to Rocky Point line owned by Alcan, but maintained and operated by the Jamaica Railway Corporation was brought into use in July 1963. Apart from the Jamaica Railway Corporation lines, there were also a number of other railway lines in the island. Leading among these was the Kaiser Bauxite Company’s railroad, a Standard Gauge line running from the bauxite mines at fellowship, near Mandeville, to Kaiser’s loading place at Port Kaiser near Alligator Pond.
In early 1966 the Jamaica Railway Society was formed. This was a society whose membership was open to anyone interested in railways, either professionally or as a hobby.
By 1973 JRC's operational deficit had risen to J$3.4 million, and in 1975 it was nearing J$4 million and carrying a J$11 million loan. The government was paying over J$1.4 million in subsidy to keep the island's trains running. However, the financial crisis had led to a backlog of deferred maintenance, with stock and buildings also neglected. In 1974 the May Pen to Frankfield line closed, whilst the Bog Walk to Port Antonio line closed in 1975.
Public pressure forced the government to reopen the Port Antonio line at a cost of J$1.4 million in 1977. The condition of the track resulted in the line closing once more in 1978. Hurricane Allen in 1980 damaged much of the JRC railway system, and totally destroyed a section of the Port Antonio line running along the coast between Buff Bay and Orange Bay.
In October 1992 public rail transport services finally ceased operating in Jamaica, although private industrial lines continue to operate in part today.
Public passenger service resumed in the island, for the first time since February 1992, when an inaugural train operated from May Pen to Linstead on April 16, 2011. Regular service was planned to begin in July, with three round-trips per day between Spanish Town and Linstead, with extensions to Williamsfield and Gregory Park (image on right) opening in September and December, respectively. The railway service has again proven to be inefficient and is therefore again on hold.
References
Dixon, Mary. From Horseback to Jetplane. Kingston: JAMAL Foundation, 1975.
Forsythe, H.G. Railways of Jamaica: an Outline History. Kingston: The JamaicaRailway Society, 1967.
“The Train is Coming So Get on Board.” Kingston: The Daily Gleaner, April 18th, 2011.
History of St. Mary
When Christopher Columbus landed in Port Maria on the fourth of May 1494 he found Taino (Indians) there?
St. Mary was first divided into two parishes? It was listed in the country of Middlesex in 1758. In 1841 the parish lost some of its acreages when the parish of Metcalfe was created out of the parishes of St. Mary and St. George?
Lookout was the name given to Firefly by the earliest recorded owner of the area the "infamous" buccaneer Henry Morgan? The area provided an excellent vantage point from which Morgan would look out for passing ships in order to conduct his many raids. These lands were later owned by famed British playwright Sir Noel Coward?
The swinging bridge that used to run across the Outrum River in Port Maria was built in 1935?
At one point Palmer's Park, Port Maria was considered one of the finest cricket grounds in the world?
Castleton Gardens was established in 1865, the year of the Morant Bay Rebellion?
The author Ian Flemming wrote some of his most well-known James Bond thrillers from his home in Goldeneye, Orcabessa?
Port Maria was first recorded in world history in the year 1516 A.D.?
The History of Spanish Town
St. Jago de la Vega or Spanish Town once the capital city of Jamaica in the parish of St. Catherine has the finest collection of historical buildings, and the country's archives. Built on the West Bank of the Rio Cobre the town lies thirteen miles from Kingston on the main road. As a site of historical importance, its history was shaped by its experiences within two significant colonial periods. These periods are the Spanish from 1534 -1655 and the English from 1655 -1782.
"Seville la Nueva was a town doomed to failure because no citizen prospered
nor kept his health for a day ... by reason of this site"
"the land is plentiful in bread beef... all who reside there have a healthy and easy life because it is a land of very good water, without mountains or ranges of hills..."
"[They] became so nervous and terrified that if two ships are seen off the Port,
without waiting to know where they are from, they remove the women and their
effects to the mountain..."
By 1755, serious rivalry from lobbyists caused increasing speculation about the continued suitability of Spanish Town as the capital. By 1836, Governor Lionel Smith observed that "the capital was in ruins, with no commercial, manufacturing and agricultural concern in operation". To worsen the situation on the heels of The Morant Bay Rebellion of 1865, Sir John Peter Grant ordered the removal of the capital to Kingston (1872) which, with its spectacular harbors and major trade links had come to be considered the natural capital of the island. After the capital was removed Spanish Town lost much of its life and grandeur.
Important dates in the History of Jamaica
1655 - The British captured Jamaica
1807 - The ending of the slave trade
1823 - The introduction of the Amelioration proposals
1831 - The Christmas rebellion or the Sam Sharpe revolt
1832 - May 23, 1832 Sam Sharpe was hanged
1834 - Apprenticeship
1838 - Emancipation
1865 - Morant Bay rebellion
1944 - Universal Adult Suffrage
1962 - August 6th 1962 Jamaica became independent
Some of the Free Villages Established in Jamaica After Emancipation
St. Ann - Moneague, Clarksonville, Wilberforce, Buxton Bethany, Salem Brown's Town, Happy Valley, Pleasant Valley, Harmony, Philadelphia, Sturge Town and Endeavour
St. Thomas - Delvery, Airy Mount (Mount Airy), Navarino, Greenwood, Beldona, Spring Mount, Elmwood, Bachelor's Hall, Pigeon Hill, Unity Valley, Leith Hall and Bath Castle
St. Elizabeth - Spring field, Lacovia, Kilmarnock, Cairn Curran, Commer Pen, Lititz, Ipswich, Carisbrook, Cruze and Ballard's Valley
Clarendon - Rhyme's Bury, Howell's Content, Halse Hall, Hayes, Mitchell's Town, Farm Colonel's Ridge, Nairne Castle, Crofts and Cross.
St. James - Goodwill, Irwin Hill, Mount Carey, Maldon, Shortwood, Sudbury and Salters Hill
Manchester - Bethabara, Beaufort, Beulah, Vale, Porus, Hillside, Maidstone, Mizaph and Walderston.
Trelawny - New Cargen, Albert Town, Stewart's Town, Gilbraltar, Kettering, Clarkson Town, Granville and Refuge
Westmoreland - Carmel, Bethel Town and St. Leonard's Gurney
St. Catherine - Sligoville, Kitson Town, Sturge Town, Victoria Township and Clarkson Town
Portland - Cedar Valley, Belle Castle and Happy Grove
Hanover - Mount Horeb and Sandy Bay
St. Andrew - Trinityville
St. Mary - Islington
Independence Day - August 6, 1962
"Into thy hands O Lord God our Father we commend
our nation and people at this time. Look down O Lord
upon our country and crown our independence with faith,
hope and courage. Send down thy light and thy truth that
they may lead us into paths of fellowship and peace."
Jamaica: Key Facts
National Symbols
Also see ourNational Symbols page for more detailed information.
Jamaican Culture
Jamaica: Economy
International Affiliation
History - Key Dates
1494 - Christopher Columbus discovered the island.
1509 - The Spanish occupied the country and remained in possession for 146 years.
1655 - The English captured the island from the Spanish and colonised the territory.
1692 - Port Royal, which had become the focal point of the pirates plundering the Caribbean and Central America, was destroyed by earthquake and Kingston became subsequently the chief city and port.
1838 - Slaves were emancipated and the economy foundered due to the crisis on the plantations.
1848 - Britain's free trade policy led to a further deterioration in the Jamaican economy because sugar protection was lifted and Jamaican sugar was in competition with cheaper sugar from elsewhere.
1865 - The Morant Bay Rebellion broke out after prolonged disputes between the planters and thesettlers.
1866 - Crown Colony Government replaced the old system of representative government.
1870 - An export Trade in Bananas replaced the predominance of sugar and restored the island's economy.
1944 - Universal adult suffrage was introduced under the newConstitution and proved to be the first step in the gradual move toward independence.
1953 - A full ministerial system was established.
1958 - Jamaica joined the federation of the West Indies which was an association of 10 British island territories in which Jamaica and Trinidad were the largest.
1959 - The country was granted full internal self-government.
1961 - Jamaica voted in a Referendum to secede from the Federation of the West Indies and to achieve Independence.
1962 - The Federation was dissolved and Jamaica became independent on August 6th.
Constitution
Jamaica is an independent country, and a dominion of the British Commonwealth. The Queen of Great Britain is the titular sovereign of Jamaica, a symbolic figure of unity without real powers. A new Constitution was enacted with Independence in August, 1962.
All Jamaicans over the age of eighteen years are eligible to vote. There are two major political parties in Jamaica - the People’s National Party and the Jamaica Labour Party. The People's National Party (P.N.P) is led by the Honorable Portia Simpson-Miller and theJamaica Labour Party (J.L.P.), led by the Honorable Andrew Holness, Prime Minister. Smaller political parties have arisen over the years, most notably the National Democratic Movement (N.D.M.), which was formed in October 1995; Peter Townsend is itscurrent President. [Updated Nov. 17, 2016]
Jamaica's Ethnic Heritage
The ethnic composition of Jamaica is largely reflected in its motto, ‘Out of Many, One People’ and is inextricably linked to the nation’s socio-economic history, especially that concerning enslavement and colonization, which resulted in mass immigration and started from as early as the sixteenth century. Until the 1500s, Jamaica’s inhabitants were predominantly Amerindians, that is, Tainos. However, with the arrival of the Spaniards in 1494, the aboriginal population drastically declined. Today there are no Tainos in Jamaica (Roberts, 1979, p.30).
The Spanish population significantly decreased following the arrival of the English in 1655. For over three centuries, the island was a colony of the England until it acquired independence on August 6, 1962. Throughout English rule, the occurrence of particularly periodical mass immigration by coerced and contractual means served to introduce other ethnic groups into the island. Such migratory movements are to a great extent historically responsible for the mélange of different ethnicities that is seen in Jamaica today; African, European, Chinese and Indian. Although these ethnicities exist to varying degrees in the society, they have all contributed to its ethnic heritage.
The Tainos, previously referred to as the Arawaks, have often been described as the earliest inhabitants of Jamaica and the first to have come into contact with the Spaniards. It is said that they originated from mainly Venezuela and Guyana in the Orinoco region of South America and were related to the Tainos of Hispaniola and Puerto Rico (Sherlock, 43; Bercht et al, 18).
Existing knowledge about the culture of the Tainos is largely based on archaeological evidence and the written records of Europeans (Spanish and English) who colonized the island. This is mainly a result of the decimation of the Taino population by enslavement, warfare, as well as diseases. Prior to Spanish encounter in 1494, the Taino population, though possibly exaggerated, is estimated to have been between five and six hundred thousand, a figure that was recorded by Fray Bartholome de las Casas (Berchtet al, 18). By the end of Spanish colonization, the population was reduced to what many have termed extinction. Nonetheless, the Tainos are considered to be a part of Jamaica’s historical heritage.
Arawak Image
The Taino society was primarily agrarian and fishing based. They cultivated maize, squash, papaya, custard apple, hog plum, pineapple, sweet potato, and cassava, in addition to other food crops. Cassava, however, was their main staple and was an essential part of various rituals and observances. It was also used to make cakes called cazabe and in making these cakes, the Tainos processed the staple and removed the toxins from it (Bercht et al, 20). Today, cazabe is a part of Jamaican cuisine, but it is more popularly known as bammy.
With the abundance of sea water on the island, it is not surprising that fishing was common among the Tainos. They harvested conch, oysters, crabs as well as other edible sea creatures. This, of course, was facilitated by their fishing techniques and navigational and canoe making skills.
In terms of social organization, the Taino society was stratified and matrilineal (inheritances were passed from mothers and grandmothers rather than fathers and grandfathers). Nevertheless, the head of the society was a male who was called a cacique ((Bercht et al, 21).
Where religious life was concerned, Tainos had various religious and ancestral representations—what some have referred to as gods—that were of critical importance to them. Such representations were made in the form of wood, petroglyphs and pictographs, which symbolized different aspects of their life including: social status, political power, fertility and productivity (Bercht et al, 21).
In general, the Tainos were a simple, but also generous and peaceful people who were skillful.
Interestingly, the name of the island ‘Jamaica’ is believed to be of Taino origin as it was derived from their reference to the island as Xaymaca—land of wood and water.
Besides, the Jamaican coat of arms bears the images of two Tainos, as well as the symbols of the pineapple, a fruit that was common part of Taino diet.
Awawak Ornament
Among the other remnants of the existence of the Tainos that have become a part of Jamaica’s historical heritage are:
Artistic objects- pottery, shell implements, mealing stones, ornaments, wooden images, and celts (Sherlock, 1939). These and other objects can be found at the Taino museum in White Marl, St. Catherine.
Apellatation- hammock, hurricane, canoe, and tobacco (Senior, 7).
Geographical landmarks- Mountain River Cave in St. Catherine, Arawak Cave in Trelawny, and Green Grotto Caves in St. Ann.
Sources
Arawak Vibrations: Homage to the Jamaican Taino. Kingston: Jamaica National Heritage Trust, and National Gallery of Jamaica, 1994.
Bercht, Fatma, Brodsky, Estrelita, Alan, John & Dicey Taylor. Taino Pre- Columbian Art and Culture from the Caribbean. NY: Monacelli Press & E Museo del Bario, 1997.
Senior, Olive. A-Z of Jamaican Heritage. Kingston: Heinemann Educational Books and ‘The Gleaner’, 1987.
Sherlock, Phillip M.The Aborigines of Jamaica. Kingston: Institute of Jamaica, 1939.
Sherlock, Phillip & Bennett, Hazel. The Story of the Jamaican People. Kingston & London: Ian Randle & Markus Weiner, 1998.
The origin of European ethnicity in Jamaica began with the arrival of the Spanish in1494, when Christopher Columbus, in his geographical explorations made claim of the island on landing in St. Anns Bay, which later became the central location of the Spaniards. It was Columbus’s second voyage to the Caribbean and he had first learnt about Jamaica (then called Xamayca by the Tainos) through the inhabitants of Cuba, but the establishment as well as the destruction of a settlement at La Navidad in Hispaniola delayed his exploration of the West Indies. Nonetheless, in 1494, he continued such activities which led him to occupy Jamaica in 1509 (Sherlock and Bennett, 63).
Accounts of Christopher Columbus and the Towns First Built by the Spaniards in the Island of Jamaica
Spain’s interest in Jamaica was primarily influenced by the search for gold, but finding this precious metal on the island proved futile. Consequently, not many Spaniards desired to settle in Jamaica at first, but the fertility of the land, which provided great yields in food production, and its strategic location, resulted in Spanish settlement in later years (Cundall, 2).
Settlers brought to the island not just plants and animals (cows, sugar cane and oranges), but also introduced to it a new way of life. They developed a thriving food supply system, which had been previously undermined by their introduction to the island, and they also implemented various structures such as bridges, roads, buildings and central towns such as Sevilla la Nueva, St. Ann and its successor, Villa de la Vega, now called Spanish Town. These developments, however, were accompanied by internal conflicts, imperialistic encounters, and more markedly, the enslavement and decimation of the Aboriginal population (Roberts, 30).
Remnants of Spanish settlement have become a part of Jamaica’s historical heritage, and comprise mainly place names and landmarks such as:
Seville, formerly Sevilla la Nueva—the first major town to be established by the Spanish in 1509 (Senior, 1983, p.145-46)
Spanish Town, formerly Villa de la Vega— the second major town to be constructed by the Spanish in 1534(Senior, 1983, 150-51)
Spanish Town Cathedral—located on the site of the Chapel of the Red Cross, which was one of the first Spanish Cathedrals to be constructed in the New World (Senior, 1983, p.151)
Names such as Ocho Rios, Rio Cobre, Rio Grande, Oracabessa and Rio Bueno
Sources
Cundall, Frank and Joseph Pietersz. Jamaica Under the Spaniards. Kingston: Institute of Jamaica, 1919.
Roberts, George W. The Population of Jamaica. Milwood, N.Y: Kraus Reprint Company, 1979.
Senior, Olive. A-Z of Jamaican Heritage. Kingston: Heinemann Educational Books (Caribbean) Limited and Gleaner Company Limited, 1983.
Sherlock, Phillip and Hazel Bennett. The Story of the Jamaican People. Kingston and Princeton: Ian Randle Publishers and Markus Wiener Publishers, 1998.
Africans represent the largest ethnic group in Jamaica. Their introduction to the island was primarily through forced migration and importation, which began with the Spaniards (Sherlock and Bennett, 68) and later they were employed by the British who sought to augment the labour supply of the demanding plantation system during the period of slavery. Estimates of the number of Africans who were brought to the island between the mid- seventeenth century and 1807 (immediately after the Abolition of the Slave Trade) varies between 750,000 to a million. Although most Africans were coercively brought to the island, a notable portion (about 8000) voluntarily came as wage labourers after emancipation, between 1840 and 1865 (Senior, 3).
Both indentured and enslaved Africans were from mainly West Africa (Southern Nigeria and the Gold Coast, Ghana) and from various ethnic groups, particularly the Asante, Yoruba, Igbo, Congo and Mandingo. With them was transported especially non- material culture such as ideas/ philosophies and beliefs, which not only manifested in various forms, but also transmitted to future generations in spite of attempts of suppression by colonists.
Despite the rigidity of enslavement, many Africans relentlessly challenged it through various overt and covert means such as rebellions/ wars, maroonage (running away from plantations), poisoning, labour withdrawal, infanticide, suicide, and destruction of property.
These, along with other acts of resistance, significantly contributed to the Abolition of Slavery in 1834 and Emancipation in 1838. The Sam Sharpe Rebellion in 1832 and maroon wars in the 1700s, for instance, posed major challenges to the institution of slavery in not only Jamaica, but they also served to undermine slavery in other British colonies as they motivated slaves to fight for freedom.
Destruction of Roehampton Estate, St. James, Property of J. Baillie Esq. January 1832
Today, Jamaican African leaders such as Sam Sharpe, and Nanny of the maroons, have not only been honoured as national heroes, but they symbolize the great struggle for freedom. Maroon settlements including: Accompong in St. James, Moore Town and Nanny Town in Portland are important maroon legacies.
The result of large scale African immigration is that the greatest portion of Jamaica’s population is of African descent, and the island’s cultural heritage is to a great extent reflective of West African traditions and their creolized versions: a mixture or fusion of African and especially, British traditions. Included in such traditions and customs are:
Jamaican creole (English)— essentially a mixture of English and African languages
Dance— Dinkini Mini, Kumina and Jonkanoo
Music—Mento (Jamaica’s first original popular music form which is a combination of African and British musical elements). Heavy drumming, commonly associated with West African music is a popular component of Jamaican music (Simpson, 31-32)
Folklore—Obeah, Duppy, Jamaican Proverbs, and Anancy Stories
Sources
Cundall, Frank and Joseph Pietersz. Jamaica Under the Spaniards. Kingston: Institute of Jamaica, 1919.
National Library of Jamaica. File Containing Historical Notes on the Lebanese.
Senior, Olive. A-Z of Jamaican Heritage. Kingston: Heinemann Educational Books (Caribbean) Limited and Gleaner Company Limited, 1983.
Sherlock, Phillip and Hazel Bennett. The Story of the Jamaican People. Kingston and Princeton: Ian Randle Publishers and Markus Wiener Publishers, 1998.
Simpson, Joane M. Why Heritage. Creative Links, 2002.
The year 1655 marked a turning point in Jamaica’s ethnic history, as the English captured the island. This was the introduction of not just another but thereafter the most prominent group of Europeans on the island. Furthermore, their arrival is largely responsible for the influx of Africans into Jamaica. For nearly a decade after its capture, the island was ruled by the English fleet—commanded by General Robert Vennables and Admiral William Penn. This was subsequently replaced by a civil government in 1663 (Luckock , 29&30).
Even though the crown was essentially interested in increasing her overseas territories so as to facilitate mercantilism, the general aim of English settlers was to acquire wealth and return to their native land. The primary means of doing this became sugar production. Such production led to the establishment of the plantation system, which was underpinned by the institution of slavery.
Upon the English’s capture, the population is estimated to have been about 6000 in 1655, which was gradually reduced by banishment and emigration of the Spaniards, as well as guerilla warfare. For many years, the number of settlers from not just England but Britain remained very low. However, the alteration of this situation was necessitated by defense and protection from other imperial forces and later the maintenance of African enslavement, which increased the white population. By 1787, there was an estimated 25,000 whites (Roberts, 33), the vast majority being English.
With settlement by the English, the social, political as well as economic culture of the island changed once again. It also saw the introduction of new biological species (for example, the mongoose and ackee). Moreover, the English are largely responsible for the creation of a diverse population as they were the ones who brought different ethnic groups to the island.
1930 Cricket Team with George Headley on Left
Today, remnants of English settlement account for a significant part of Jamaica’s historical heritage. It still influences aspects of Jamaica’s political and social life such as:
The Political System— Parliamentary democracy, and constitutional monarchy
The Education System— Structure is based on the English model
Social Customs—Main/formal language is English, stratification of society, Maypole dancing, and playing Cricket and football.
The Legal System—the Privy Council, located in the United Kingdom, is the final court.
Food— Christmas pudding, and Easter bun.
Sources
Buyamin, Luckock. Jamaica: Enslaved and Free. London: The Religious Tract Society, 1799.
Roberts, George W. The Population of Jamaica. Milwood, N.Y: Kraus Reprint Company, 1979.
Senior, Olive. Encyclopedia of Jamaican Heritage. St. Andrew: Twin Guinep Publishers, 2003.
Senior, Olive. A-Z of Jamaican Heritage. Kingston: Heinemann Educational Books (Caribbean) Limited and Gleaner Company Limited, 1983.
Sherlock, Phillip and Hazel Bennett. The Story of the Jamaican People. Kingston and Princeton: Ian Randle Publishers and Markus Wiener Publishers, 1998.
The Welsh are a small, but important part of Jamaica’s ethnic background and historical heritage. Migration from Wales to the island can be traced back to as early as the 1600s. A notable portion of these individuals were ministers of religion and plantation managers especially from the Anglican and Moravian faiths. Yet, they were more popular in Congregationalists and Methodist spheres. Dr. Thomas co*ke, born in Brecon, Wales, in 1747 is one such individual who has left his mark on Jamaica’s religious landscape. Described as the founder of Methodism in Jamaica and a ‘fiery little Welsh man abounding charm, culture and character’ (Davies & Jones, 2), co*ke ministered in several islands of the West Indies and was also a part of the anti-slavery movement. This explains why the ‘Parade’ Chapel in Kingston is now referred to as ‘co*ke Memorial’ (ibid) (Davies & Jones, 1). Others included artisans, sailors and labourers (Senior, 511). Nonetheless, their numbers were significantly less in comparison to the Irish and Scots, who were mostly indentured servants and prisoners of war (Davies & Jones, 1&2). Remnants of Welsh’s presence in Jamaica are evident in religion, culture, architecture, appellation and culture.
Sir Henry Morgan
One of the main reasons why Port Royal is a major historical site is because it was once the base of the notorious Welsh buccaneer, Henry Morgan, who was very wealthy and believed to have died in 1688.
The usage of low walls made of free stones as perimeters for pastures and fields, that is common in the parishes of St. Ann and Trelawny and that has been transmitted to future generations; slate roofing of eighteenth and nineteenth centuries sugar works; and supposedly slate material used for the construction of primary school buildings up to the second half of the 1900s are all Welsh legacies (Senior, 511).
Undoubtedly the most common aspect of Welsh remnants can be seen throughout Jamaica. Place names include: Welsh Woman Point in Portland; Landeway in St. Thomas; Llandovery Falls, Llandovery- Richmond estates and Cardiffe Hall in St. Ann; Luidas Vale (debatable) in St. Catherine; Pantrepant in Trelawny; Denbigh in Clarendon; Llandillo in Westmoreland; and Mona in St. Andrew (Davies & Jones, 7-10).
Among personal names of Welsh origin are: Williams, Boyd, Davies, Evans, Jones, Morgan, Owens, Thomas, Howell, Hughes, Griffiths, Vaughan and Welsh/ Welch. Albergaveny, Aberstwyth, Brecknock, Llandudno, and Radnor, these were common suburban house names in Kingston and St. Andrew up to the mid 1900s, but faded thereafter (Senior, 511).
Sources
Davies, J.W. Dossett &Jones, Ifor Tegwyn. The Influence of the Welsh on the History and Development of Jamaica from 1655. Oxfordshire, England: Eastways, 1987.
Senior, Olive. Encyclopedia of Jamaican Heritage. St. Andrew: Twin Guinep Publishers, 2003.
Tortello, Rebecca. Pieces of the Past: a Stroll Down Jamaica’s Memory Lane. Kingston: Ian Randle Publishers, 2007.
Germans account for the lesser portion of Europeans who settled on the island. They included mainly immigrants from Northern Germany, who were mostly of the Catholic faith, and established settlements in various parts of theisland, such as Seaford Town/‘German Town’, in Westmoreland, in 1835. The total number of Germans who migrated to Jamaica has been estimated to be over a thousand (Senior, 69) and the earliest of them came in 1834.
The purpose of their settlement was to augment the white population as the planters believed emancipation would and did cause a shortage of labour. In addition to this, indentured labour served to encourage farming on the island, while famine and other hardships experienced at home forced a number of them to the island (Sherlock and Bennett, 317).
Seaford Town
Though some of the Germans died from tropical diseases and others left Jamaica for the United States because of unfulfilled expectations, concerning residence and work, many continued settlement on the island. Such settlements contributed to the mixed racial composition of Jamaica, and the places where these settlements were established are small, but notable parts of the country’s historical heritage (Senior, 69). For instance, Seaford Town more commonly known as German Town is of historical importance as it is one of the first German settlements in Jamaica. There is a German museum at the Sacred Heart Catholic Church in the town. The Germans also settled in Clarendon mountains, Dry Harbour Mountains in St. Ann, Lacovia in St. Elizabeth, and Spaulding in Manchester.
Personal names that can be traced to German settlement on the island include: Eldemire, Kameke, Somers, Harker, Bonnerman, Rheiman, Kleinhance and Groskopf (Fremmer, 20-25). On the other hand, place names include: Bremen Valley, New Brunswick, Schellenburg, Stettin and Hessin Castle (Senior, 210).
Sources
Fremmer, Ray. "Jamaica’s Little Germany." Sky Writings 1981: 2.28 .
Senior, Olive. A-Z of Jamaican Heritage. Kingston: Heinemann Educational Books (Caribbean) Limited and Gleaner Company Limited, 1983.
Senior, Olive. Encyclopedia of Jamaican Heritage. St. Andrew: Twin Guinep Publishers Ltd., 2003.
Sherlock, Phillip and Hazel Bennett. The Story of the Jamaican People. Kingston and Princeton: Ian Randle Publishers and Markus Wiener Publishers, 1998.
After emancipation, many of the island’s planters held the view that there would be and was a significant shortage of labour that was needed to successfully continue the plantation system. It was on this basis that they employed the use of indentured labourers, and Indians more commonly referred to as East Indians, comprised the greater portion of these labourers. The years 1845 and 1917 mark the start and end of the period of Indian indentured immigration on the island. It is estimated that the total number of the first set of Indians who came to Jamaica was 260; however this figure was short of 10 immigrants who had died on board the ship Blundell Hunter (Laxmi and Ajai Mansingh, 1). These Indians journeyed from Calcutta and disembarked at Port Royal, later. Like others who subsequently arrived, they were brought under contractual arrangements— five years with the option of returning home after (Shepherd, 22). But there were also some who came as independent immigrants, commonly known as ‘Bombay Merchants’ (Senior, 79).
Indian Immigration Pass
The main source of Indian labour was Northern India, which explains their Hindu background, and it has been estimated that 36,412 of these people were brought to the island, between 1845 and 1917. Contrary to contractual arrangements, a great portion of these workers experienced severe working and living conditions, which has even been approximated to those of slavery. Consequently, many of them died and about a third returned to their native land. Those who remained established dwellings in especially the parishes of Westmoreland, Clarendon, Kingston, and St. Mary, the main parishes where Indian labourers had worked (Senior, 79).
With the Indians came the introduction of another culture to the island. Elements of this culture are noticeable especially in the culinary aspect of Jamaica’s heritage. Foods such as curried dishes and rice, which is a popular staple in Jamaican diet, are of Indian origin.
Sources
Mansingh, Ajai & Laxmi.Home Away from Home. Kingston: Ian Randle Publishers, 1999.
Senior, Olive. A-Z of Jamaican Heritage. Kingston: Heinemann Educational Books (Caribbean) Limited and Gleaner Company Limited, 1983.
Shepherd, Verene. Transients to Settlers. Great Britain: Centre for Research in Asian Migration, University of Warwick, & Peepal Tree Books, 1993.
Sherlock, Phillip and Hazel Bennett. The Story of the Jamaican People. Kingston and Princeton: Ian Randle Publishers and Markus Wiener Publishers, 1998.
The Scots
The first Scottish arrivals in Jamaica dates back to the mid seventeenth century when prisoners of war (Cromwellian Outbreak) were sent to the island as indentured servants. Another influx of Scottish migrants came between 1745 and 1746, following the demise of the last Jacobite Rebellion. Other Scottish migrants who came to the island include: hundreds of former Darien (failed Scottish settlement in Panama) settlers, a significant amount of voluntary immigrants, as well as beggars, gypsies and criminals. The Scots were one of the more dominant white ethnic groupings. It is estimated that by 1750, Scots made up approximately one third of the white population (Senior, 434). Remnants of their presence on the island are observable in various aspects of life and have also become a part of Jamaica’s European heritage.
Scots Kirk
Prior to the institution of black slavery in the English speaking Caribbean, white indentureship served as the main means of labour supply and Scots were the most requested white workers. They held many of the skilled jobs on the plantations. However, with the establishment of black slavery much less Scots were recruited. The little that was recruited filled bookkeeping and similar posts. As a result, some migrated to other territories while others stayed and eked out an existence outside of the plantation (Senior, 434).
A notable portion of Scots, especially sojourners (those who migrated with the intention of returning to their native land) (Karass, 9-13), were doctors, lawyers, and attorneys/ estate managers. Even the poorest of them who occupied average managerial positions tended to advance to estate/ plantation owners.
After Emancipation and until 1845, Scots were again recruited to meet labour demands as well as augment the white population, which proved to be largely unsuccessful. One of the townships built, particularly for the Scots, was the Surrey Township of Altamont on the upper Rio Grande, close to the Moore Town Maroon settlement. Many of the Scots who settled this township in 1837, died from illnesses, while the others became a part of the Maroon settlement. Consequently, such assimilation led to the adoption of Scottish names in the Maroon community and to a larger extent, culture. These include: Brodie, Hepburn, Stevenson, Allan and Christian (Senior, 435).
Lewis Hutchinson, nicknamed Mad Master is an infamous Scottish immigrant, who is said to have used his estate, Edingburgh Castle to kidnap and torture several travelers who would stop by to rest. Travellers would stop here to rest as it was the only residence along the great distance from South St. Anns Bay. It is also believed that killing was more of a pass time for Hutchinson. Though he pleaded guilty, he was tried and sentenced to hanging in Spanish Town Square (Tortello, 38).
Place names such as: Auchenbreck and Auchendown in Westmoreland; Edingburgh Castle and Blackstonedge in St. Ann; Carlisle Bay in Clarendon; and Dressikie in St. Mary are all reflective of Jamaica’s Scottish heritage (Senior, 435).
Among other Scottish remnants are: the celebration of St. Andrews Day, St. Andrews Scots Kirk Church and the Scotch Reel Dance and Scottish influence on Jamaican English.Sources
Karass, Allan L. Sojourners in the Sun: Scottish Migrants in Jamaica and the Chesapeake, 1740- 1800. New York: Cornell University Press, 1992.
Senior, Olive. Encyclopedia of Jamaican Heritage. St. Andrew: Twin Guinep Publishers, 2003.
Tortello, Rebecca. Pieces of the Past: a stroll down Jamaica’s Memory Lane. Kingston: Ian Randle Publishers, 2007.
Though a relatively small group, the Lebanese, also called Syrians, is a prominent ethnic group in Jamaica. The year 1891 marks the first arrival of this ethnic group in Jamaica, and one of, if not, the main cause of their departure from their native land—Lebanon, Damascus, and Bethlehem (formerly a part of Syria) — was religious persecution. Britain and her colonies provided a better alternative as the Lebanese believed that these territories offered great prosperity.
Different reasons have been forwarded as to why the Lebanese chose Jamaica as a destination. Popular views include that of the Great Exhibition of 1891 (held at the Wolmer’s School in Kingston) sparking their interest in the country. It is also said that the earliest arrival of Lebanese immigrants was unplanned as this group disembarked on the island because they did not have knowledge about where exactly they were going. With Jamaica being a colony of Britain and the first place where the ship stopped, many decided to stay. Later arrivals, however, were influenced by the potential prosperity the island could afford them, and ties of kinship (Tortello, 2003).
In settling on the island, the Lebanese established themselves as businessmen, peddling mainly dry goods and clothing. These items were often sold on the basis of credit which was convenient to buyers. From peddling they were able to set up successful small business places, especially in the down town area of Kingston. King, Orange, West Queen, and Harbour were and are still associated with businesses of people of Lebanese descent. Amars, Josephs and Hanna’s are just a few of those well known establishments. Lebanese entrepreneurial relations grew to be a part of the business culture of Jamaica. ‘Quattie a yard O, Salo’ is one of the folk songs that reflect the Lebanese business relations, and is an element of the Jamaican heritage.
Today, not only are Syrians known for their business prowess, but they have played a significant role in the commercial and industrial development of Jamaica (Senior, 93-94). Popular family names of Lebanese origins includes: Issa, Matalon, Amar, Mahfood, Hanna, Marzouca, Zacca, Zadie and Haddad. Even one of Jamaica’s former prime ministers, Edward Seaga, is a Lebanese descendant (Bryan, 10).
Sources
Bryan, Patrick E. Edward Seaga and the Challenges of Modern Jamaica 2009.
Ammar, Nelly. Notes on the Lebanese. National Library of Jamaica.
Senior, Olive. A-Z of Jamaican Heritage. Kingston: Heinemann Educational Books (Caribbean) Limited and Gleaner Company Limited, 1983.
Sherlock, Phillip and Hazel Bennett. The Story of the Jamaican People. Kingston and Princeton: Ian Randle Publishers and Markus Wiener Publishers, 1998.
Tortello, Rebecca. The Arrival of the Lebanese.http://jamaica-gleaner.com/pages/history/story0056.htm
The first Irish immigrants in Jamaica can be traced to the mid seventeenth century, around the time of capture of the island by the English in 1655. A significant amount of these arrivals were young male bond servants from other neighbouring English territories such as Barbados, St. Kitts and Montserrat. Despite their refusal, many of them had been removed from Ireland as a result of the conquest of Ireland by Cromwell’s forces (Senior, 245-246). Not long thereafter, wives and children— particularly those who were orphans and destitute— of men involved in the Thirteen Years War were sent to Jamaica, as well as other English Caribbean territories (Tortello, 58).
Hundreds of Irish were also sent from Ireland to Jamaica between 1671 and 1675. The terms of work varied according to age and social status. However, restrictions were also placed on diet, clothing, behavior and religion. For instance, those Irish who were under age eighteen (18) would serve for a period of seven 7 years, while those over eighteen 18 would serve for four (Senior, 245).
Historical Map of Irish Settlement - Middleton
Jamaica received another influx of Irish immigrants during the period 1835 to 1841, but this marked the end of mass Irish immigration. Like other white immigrant groupings, they were brought to increase the white population after the abolition of slavery in 1834 and also boost the labour force. They were tasked with work on sugar and coffee plantations, employed as skilled workers and enrolled in the police force. But, as was the case with previous settlers, the tropical climate, work regime and harsh treatment all served to reduce their population as many died and left the island for other territories (Senior, 246).
Evidence of Jamaica’s Irish connection can be seen in different aspects of the society. They include:
Ethnic composition— Several prominent Jamaicans are of Irish descent: Sir Alexander Bustamante (National Hero and former prime minister), Claude Mckay (poet), Chris Blackwell (record producer), Sir Phillip Sherlock (former UWI Vice Chancellor), and Phillip Feany (horse trainer) (Tortello, 57)
Appellation- Among common Irish surnames is Burke, Collins, Mackey, Murphy and Madden. Place names include Irish Town (this was one of the first/ original Irish settlements) in St. Andrew, Kildare and Clonmel (the name originated in Tipperary, Ireland) in St. Mary, and Belfast and Middleton in St. Thomas (Tortello, 57; Sibley, 37 & 80)
The Police Force- This is modeled off the Irish Police Force, and perhaps the most prominent feature that is synonymous with the Irish is the red stripes or what Jamaicans usually refer to as red seam on the trousers (Tortello, 59)
Dance- Folk dances, such as those associated with the Maroons, are influenced by Irish Reels (Senior, 245)
Language- The development of Jamaican English or Creole was strongly influenced by the Irish. It is said that the slaves and Irish often interacted because they worked in positions that facilitated frequent communication (Senior, 246)
Sources
Senior, Olive. Encyclopedia of Jamaican Heritage. St. Andrew: Twin Guinep Publishers, 2003.
Sibley, Knibb Inez. Dictionary of Place - Names in Jamaica. Institute of Jamaica, 1978.
Tortello, Rebecca. Pieces of the Past: a Stroll Down Jamaica’s Memory Lane. Kingston: Ian Randle Publishers, 2007.
Kumina
Kumina is the most African of the cults to be found in Jamaica, with negligible European or Christian influence. Linguistic evidence cites the Kongo as a specific ethnic source for the ‘language’ and possibly the music of Kumina. There are varying theories as to whether it was brought with late African arrivals after Emancipation, or whether it was rooted in Jamaica from the 18th century, and deepened by the later African influence.
Public Holidays in Jamaica
The Independence season draws hundreds of visitors to the island and many Jamaicans living abroad also return for the season of festivities.
Railway Catastrophe at Kendal
September 1, 1957 represents a fateful date in the history of the Jamaica Railway Department. On that date at approximately 11:30 p.m., a train carrying some one thousand, six hundred (1600) excursionists derailed its tracks killing almost 200 persons and injuring about 500 others.
The Trade Union Movement in Jamaica
The modern Trade Union Movement in
By 1938 the frustration of the working class which had built up over the years, became explosive. A wave of industrial unrest swept the country, with workers on the waterfront, in the sugar industry, transportation sector and the government service taking the lead.
Out of the social upheaval of those years came a new type of trade union. Prior o 1938, the few trade unions in existence were organised largely on an industrial basis. Among them were: the Longshoreman’s Union Number 2 and the Jamaica Hotel Employees’ Association.
With the new consciousness of the working class, came the formation of general unions, representing workers in several sectors. One such union was the Bustamante Industrial Trade Union, registered on
Legislation
The principal item of legislation governing the conduct of trade unions in
By a series of amendments in 1938, 1940, 1952 and 1959, the Trade Union Law came to offer protection against intimidation of unions, provided for registration of a union, or a refusal to register a union.
The focal point of labour relations matters in
The 1975 Act replaced the Public Utility Undertakings and Public Services Arbitration Law and the Trade Disputes (Arbitration and Enquiry) Law, under which, for example, strikes and lockouts were illegal in any area listed as an Essential Service.
The Industrial Disputes Tribunal
The LRIDA provided principally for the establishment of an Industrial Disputes Tribunal (IRDT) as a final arbiter of disputes; compulsory recognition and protection against discrimination in respect of union membership; recognition of trade unions; settlement of disputes in the essential services; the setting up of a Board of Enquiry; a Labour Relations Code; and vesting the Minister of Labour with authority to declare a dispute to be one which is likely to gravely endanger the national interest and give him power to have the dispute put to compulsory arbitration.
The IRDT has come under much fire for its failure to ensure continued production while a dispute is before it, in many cases. The tribunal has also faced problems in the finality of its powers as evidenced by the growing frequency with which some employers are challenging its awards in court, and the outright rejection of some of its awards by some workers.
How unions serve workers
It is known that a worker alone cannot defend his or her job security or demand improvement in working conditions. The worker must therefore organize with other workers to achieve those ends. This is done by joining a trade union. Through the Trade Union, workers can bargain from a point of strength. The Trade Union serves the worker in a variety of ways:
organizing workers into stronger units.
making negotiating skills and expertise available to
workers for bargainingpurposes, in order to secure just and proper rates for wages, better conditions of work, and protect the general interests of its members
promoting the material, social, economic and educational welfare of workers through in-house programmes
forming co-operatives among workers
mobilizing public opinion on behalf of its members when necessary
by strengthening the democratic process of governance.
The ongoing education of persons within trade unions is carried out on several levels. There are the internal programmes by which unions educate members on matters affecting administration, grievance procedures. Then, there are the programmes, which provide training in areas such as economics and social structure, politics and government, methods and techniques for workers education and trade union training. These programmes are carried out by the Trade Union Education Institute of the University of the West Indies Extra Mural Department. The TUEI was established in 1962, jointly by the UWI; the Government of Jamaica, three unions – BITU, NWU and TUC along with the American Institute for Free Labour Development. In the education scheme also, more recently the Joint Trade Unions Research Development Centre has begun conducting courses for delegates.
Collective Bargaining
Where workers are not organized into a group or groups, they are generally subject to arbitrary decisions of their employers, regardless of the severity of the consequences. Matters having to do with employment, termination, wages and hours to work, as well as other matters, which directly affect the workers conditions of service can be adversely affected by the total disregard for the workers’ interest. Unionised workers are also able to influence the decision of management through the process of collective bargaining.
Law defines collective bargaining, which is the central focus of trade union activity, as “negotiations between one or more organizations representing workers and either one or more employer, one or more organizations representing employers, or a combination representing employers”.
Put more simply, collective bargaining is an exercise in which workers, through their trade unions, try to reach agreement with employers on wages and other conditions of employment and matters, which directly affect their conditions of service.
The Joint Trade Union Research Development Centre was established in September, 1980, through the co-operation of the Government of Norway, creating a new milestone in the history of the trade union movement.
The founding unions are the BITU, NWU, TUC, and JALGO, with the United Portworkers and Seamens Union and the Jamaica Union of Public Officers and Public Employees having affiliate status.
The principal aims of the Centre are:
the education of the trade unionists
the promotion of trade union interests and activities at
all levels, with a view to making unions a part
of the social, cultural and economic framework of the
communitythe development of trade union leadership through training
the education of the society as a whole on the role of trade
unions in the countryand the workplace, and the unions
struggles for just social values and equitable economic
development.the undertaking of community projects in conjunction
with participating tradeunions and international organisations where possible.
the declaration of joint positions by the founding unions
on issues of nationaland international importance.
Two Dominant Jamaican Trade Unions
Bustamante Industrial Trade Union: 1938 became the watershed for the emergence of unions led by a group of charismatic labour leaders, the foremost of whom was Alexander Bustamante.
In May 1938, Bustamante spent a short period in custody for leading rioting crowds through Kingston. After his release, Bustamante formed five labour unions with himself as head of each. The union represented Maritime Workers, Transport Labour, Factory Workers, Municipal Employees and General Labour. With the basic structure for his union in place Bustamante focused on recruiting members and organizing sections. A few months after the formation of the five unions, Bustamante gave up the idea of a group of unions because of organizational difficulties and instead merged them into a single all-inclusive labour organization, named after himself and having him as president for life.
In January 1939 the BITU was registered under the Trade Union law and two weeks later Bustamante called an all-island strike to protest against busting practices of employers. Although this first all-island strike was unsuccessful, the union experienced significant growth over the few years of its experience largely due to the charisma of Bustamante and his ability to gain significant benefits for the workers he represented.
During 1940, Bustamante was arrested for an inflammatory speech in which he threatened widespread strike action. For the 17 months that he was in custody, the management of the union was in the hands of his cousin Norman Manley along with many of Manley’s organizers from the PNP, such as Noel Nethersole and Florizel Glasspole. The union flourished while Bustamante was in jail and membership more than doubled over the period. Following his release in February of 1942, Bustamante broke off relations with Manley and the PNP officers and accused them of conspiring to extend his detention.
Announcements that a new and more liberal constitution was going to be introduced, which would allow for greater levels of self rule, motivate Bustamante to follow the example the Manley had set earlier and used members of the BITU as a base for a political party. In the latter part of 1943 Bustamante announced his intention to form the Jamaica Labour Party (JLP). The membership of the BITU were used to form the initial membership of the party. Bustamante’s success in negotiating substantial gains for large groups for workers fueled further support for the JLP. When elections were held in December 1944 the JLP won with a land-slide victory, paving the way for Bustamante to lead the government.
By this time the BITU’s membership had grown considerably and the union was well entrenched in the sugar industry and on the wharves. The period 1945 to 1950 was one of the most turbulent in Jamaica’s history and saw unparalled levels of political and union violence. The success of the JLP, which was largely due to its connections with the BITU, led the PNP to form a general union called the Trade Union Congress (TUC), in order to mobilize working class support for the party. The rivalry between the TUC and the BITU resulted in many violent clashes. One of the more violent clashes occurred as a result of a strike among workers at the Bellevue Mental Hospital. This incident left a number of workers dead and many more injured. Most of the violent incidences were the result of the TUC’s attempts to break into BITU’s strong holds, with the ultimate intention of ensuring a PNP victory at the next polls.
Despite the efforts of the PNP and TUC, The JLP was able to win the election in 1949 but this time with a smaller margin. Following this election a truce was arrived at between BITU and TUC. This truce led to the introduction of joint bargaining in the sugar industry and for the first time the BITU and the TUC jointly represented the workers in that industry. Realizing the importance of unity in the trade union movement the BITU supported all efforts in this direction. They supported the institution of the Trade Union Education Institute during the 1960s and played a critical role in the formation of the Joint Trade Union Research Development Centre in 1980 and the Jamaica Confederation of Trade Unions (JCTU) in 1994.
The union’s membership continued to grow rapidly during the 1950’s and 1960’s passing the 100,000 mark when the JLP led the nation into independence in 1962. The BITU stands out among the unions operating in Jamaica for the fact that there have not been many changes to its leadership over the nearly 60 years of its existence. Bustamante was the president for of the union for life, however in the 1960s as his health deteriorated Bustamante handed over the reigns of the union to Hugh Shearer, who had joined the union in the 1940s as a youngster and moved progressively up its hierarchy. However, it was only after the death of Bustamante at the age of 93, in 1977 that Shearer actually became president. This was made official in 1979 at an Annual General Meeting at the National Arena.
Throughout its history, the BITU has focused on collective bargaining as the primary means of improving the working and living standards of its members. Through negotiations they have been able to secure increased job security; severance pay provisions; guaranteed call out pay; shorter working hours; premium pay for work on Sunday and public holidays; annual leave with pay; pension schemes; uniforms and many benefits. The union has also placed a special emphasis on education at all levels and has negotiated for the provision of educational scholarships for its members.
National Workers’ Union: This union was founded out of a split between the PNP and the Trade Union Congress (TUC) in 1952. It began with Noel Nethersole as its president anD Florizel Glasspole as the general secretary. Michael Manley the son of Norman Manley was one of their assistants.
The NWU started its activities in labour representation by organizing and eventually controlling the bauxite industry from its inception. The union set precedence by successfully making an ability-to-pay claim on the bauxite industry. In the process of negotiation the union held a seven-week strike against Alumina Jamaica in 1953. This dispute was eventually sent to be arbitrated by an English Barrister-at-law named Honeyman.
Following on their success in the Bauxite Industry the union focused on breaking into sugar which was the stronghold of the BITU. Leading the union in this task was Michael Manley, who was the union’s first Island Supervisor. The union won polls in three estates, namely New Yarmouth, Bernard Lodge and Frome, giving itself a valuable foothold in that strategic industry in 1954.
The NWU grew rapidly and soon out-stripped the TUC and began to seriously challenge the BITU for dominance in the labour movement. With their membership growing and their success in the Bauxite Industry giving added support, the growth of the NWU assisted in the success of the PNP in the 1959 general election.
Following the PNP’s success, the NWU continued to organize and compete with the BITU or dominance in the labour scene. In 1957 the NWU established a foot-hold in the Banana Industry, another of the BITU’s domains. Throughout the 1960’s the NWU was involved in several land-mark disputes. Among these were the Jamaica Omnibus Service (JOS) strike in 1963 and Jamaica Broadcasting Corporation (JBC) strike in 1964. The JBC strike in particular, under the leadership of Michael Manley, galvanized public support for the aggrieved workers. Even though the workers involved in the strike were a relatively small group of skilled persons, through the use of civil disobedience and a national go-slow, Manley was able to force concessions from a resistant government and eventually a Board of Enquiry was set up to settle the dispute.
The NWU during the 1960’s was also noted for the high level of representation they made to the many Commissions of Enquiry that were set up to settle longstanding disputes in Bauxite, Sugar and other industries.
The NWU has played an active role in promoting collaboration and cooperation of the Trade Union in the 1970’s and 1980’s. Although Michael Manley who was the first Vice President, resigned this post in 1972 to become Prime Minister, he continued to work at strengthening the unity of the labour movement. As Prime Minister, Manley laid the groundwork for the formation of the JTURDC following discussions with the Norwegian President. After his defeat at the poll in 1980, he returned to the union and became the President of the NWU, a post he held until 1989, when his party was successful at the polls and he became Prime Minister of Jamaica. Manley also played the lead role in the passage of a number of labour legislation during the 1970’s, such as the Labour Relations and Industrial Disputes Act; Maternity Leave Act; Redundancy and Termination Act; Equal Pay for Men and Women; Minimum Wage Act. During his administration the National Housing Trust (NHT) and the Workers Bank were also established to assist the working class.
Other Trade Unions in Jamaica
Jamaica Association of Local Government Officers (JALGO) – 1940
Jamaica Civil Service Association (JCSA) – 1919
Jamaica Teachers Association (JTA) – 1894
Jamaica Union of Public Officers and Public Employees (JUPOPE) – 1971
Jamaica Workers Union (JWU) – 1970
Nurses Association of Jamaica (NAJ) – 1946
Trades Union Congress (TUC) – 1949
Union of Schools Agricultural and Allied Workers (USAAW) – 1978
Union of Technical Supervisory and Administrative Personnel (UTASP) - 1967
United Union of Jamaica (UUJ) - 1975
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Traditional Foods in Jamaican Culture
The first Jamaicans, the Tainos, began arriving in the Island around
A.D. 650. A peaceful people, they enjoyed the undisturbed tranquility of the West Indies for approximately 2000 years. They feasted on over forty varieties of fish. Anthropologists have found the bones and shells of the grouper, parrotfish sturgeon shark, lobster, oyster conch, whelk, oyster and crab in their "middens" or garbage heaps.
We are also told that the Tainos enjoyed the green crabmeat in the shell. They mixed it with limejuice making a sauce called tamulin, which they ate with cassava bread. That may have been one of the first evidences of seasoning with limejuice. This is still practiced by Jamaicans today.
Besides seafood, the Tainos also ate small birds such as Parrots and water birds, Iguanas, yellow snakes and Conies. They also cultivated chili pepper, cassava, sweet potato, pumpkin, yampi, corn, arrowroot, coco, guava, star apple, pineapple and cashew.
Bammy or cassava bread was the staple of the Tainos. First, the cassava was dug from the ground, scraped and cut into small pieces. The poisonous juice was then extracted by pressing the pieces. The "trash" was moulded into cakes and baked on a griddle. The bammies later became an important part of the diet of the Spaniards and the British soldiers, as they would remain fresh for months.
The Tainos also made intoxicating drinks from cassava as well as from maize. Another of their discoveries was that meat could be made tender if wrapped in papaya (paw-paw) leaves. Today, tenderizers are made from papain, extracted from papaya. Other foods from the Tainos include boiled or roasted corn, porridge made from corn and cornmeal dumplings.
One of their methods of food preparation was with the 'barbacoa'. This is a wooden grate standing on four forked sticks placed over a slow fire. On this they spit-roasted fish and meat. This was the forerunner to the present barbecue grill. This method of meat preparation is a favourite of Jamaicans. "Jerked" meats are available at many places throughout the country.
The Contribution of Different Ethnic Groups to Jamaica's Culinary Heritage
The Spaniards
In 1494, the Spaniards, the first Europeans to inhabit the Island arrived with Christopher Columbus on his second voyage to the New World. They brought with them sweet oranges, sour oranges, lime and lemon, tamarind, coconut, banana, grapes, sugarcane, ginger, date palm, pomegranate, plantains and figs. These are just some of the foods the Spaniards brought with them.
Our famous escovietched fish and bammies are from a combination of two cultures, escovietched fish from the Spaniards and bammy from the Tainos. The Spaniards also left with us hot country style chocolate made from roasted ground, spiced cocoa beans, gizzada (coconut tart) and the soaking of fruits in wine for Christmas pudding.
Although they came in 1494, it was not until 150 years later that they brought cattle, goats, pigs, horses and lard from pork fat.
The British
In 1655 the British captured Jamaica from the Spaniards and controlled the Island until 1962. They introduced the breadfruit, otaheiti apples, ackee, mangoes, rose apples, turmeric, black pepper and coffee.
Evidence of the sweet-toothed English remains today in the rich pastries Jamaicans love to eat. These include Easter buns, sponge cakes, jam and pies. Other British influences include bacon and eggs, roast beef, fruit salad and corned or salted beef.
The Africans
In 1514, the Asiento or import license was granted for the introduction of the Africans under Spanish rule. It was however under the British that the numbers were greatly increased.
The Africans brought with them their methods of food preparation, using their creativity to blend traditional African foods with what was made available to them by the whites. Their music, dance and religion were interwoven with European influences to create what has distinctly become a part of our rich Jamaican culture.
They came with foods such as coco. Ground provisions were used to replace part of the imported cereal. They prepared mostly one-pot meals. Their traditional cooking utensils included three legged iron pot, grater, mortar and pestle, and wooden turn stick. The plantation owners, by law had to supply the enslaved people with salted meat or fish at least once per year and they were expected to supplement their diet with the ground provisions, which they grew. A variety of foods emerged from this combination the most popular of these being ackee and salt fish which became the national dish.
Other foods such as mackerel rundown or "Dip and Fall Back" and the Stamp and Go" which is the name given to what is also known as saltfish fritters. Cuckoo and fou-fou both of African origin are still prepared in Jamaica. In Africa fou-fou is made from plantain or cassava. In Jamaica it is made from yam or breadfruit. Meals were "washed down" with crude wet sugar and water and were called black wash or "brebich" (beverage).
The concept of jerk was also introduced to us by the Africans, and this is still an important aspect of our culinary heritage. This can be traced to the pre-slavery Coromantee hunters of West Africa. These hunters would roast pork over hot coals in earthen pots that were covered patas-stands made of green pimento or other branches. The Coromantees heavily populated the northeastern area of Jamaica known today as Portland, home of the famous Boston jerk pork. Boston is a small seaside village in Portland.
The Germans
The Germans influence came particularly from those who migrated in the 1960's. They gave us smoked pork, Pork Schnitzel and Wiener Schnitzel and several others such as Knockwurst, German pork sausages, frankfurters, wieners, smoked marlin as well as baked hams.
The Chinese
Importation of Chinese indentured labour had first been proposed to the British government by the governor of Trinidad.
Initially, the availability of some ingredients was limited because of lack of basic ingredients. Few of the necessary spices and flavourings that could have been transported would have survived the length of the journey or the heat. However, Soya sauce, dried noodles and five star powder were available by the end of the century.
Honey, an important ingredient in Chinese cookery became available in the West Indies during the 19th century as estate owners successfully learned how to keep bees. Today methods of Chinese cooking have been successfully incorporated into our Jamaican culture. These include stirred fry, deep-fried, steamed and sour foods which are skillfully cut and garnished. Ginger is frequently used in the dishes.
The East Indians
The East Indians who came to Jamaica between 1838 and 1917 were also indentured labourers. They introduced the roti, mangoes, wheat, flour, eggplant and ginger.
The Indians used a simple cast iron pot called a 'karahi' and a short handled flat griddle called a 'tawa' to prepare meals.
The Jews
The original Jewish settlers were Portuguese who arrived, it is believed with Christopher Columbus. After Emancipation, the Jewish communities grew and were later joined by merchants from Syria and Lebanon.
The Jews have been credited with having introduced exotic ways of preparing aubergine or garden eggs or eggplant, as it is known in Jamaica.
The Rastafarians
The Rastafarians prepare their meals mainly from locally grown foods without the addition of salt or other preservatives. This is referred to as being "I - tal".
"Rasta" food, except for the occasional small fish, is mostly vegetarian. The rich variety of local produce is used in stir-fries and vegetable stews, which are often thickened and flovoured with coconut milk, limejuice and pepper.
Historical Facts About Some of our Foods
Ackee
It is believed that the ackee 'Blighia sapida' (named in honour of Captain Bligh of the Bounty) was brought to the island by the enslaved West Africans. By 1798 it was to be found as an exotic plant in homes in St. Andrew and is now grown Island wide.
Breadfruit
It was Captain Bligh, on his second voyage to Jamaica in 1793, who brought some 350 breadfruit trees which were planted in the Hope Botanical Gardens in Kingston, and in government botanical gardens in other parishes. Intended to provide a supply of cheap food for slaves, it was unpopular for the first fifty years and was fed to pigs. The attractive trees, which lasted for a very long time, needed little care. Their light-green broad indented leaves resemble large fingers. It is used for puddings, drinks, wines, chips and flour and used as you would use potato in salads. The blossoms are used to make tasty preserves.
Black and White Pepper
Thomas Hibbert brought the first pepper plant to Jamaica from the East Indies in 1787.
Ginger
The ginger plant (Zingiber Officinale), originally from the orient was introduced by the Spanish in 1527.
Jamaica is reputed to produce the finest ginger in the world. It is used mainly to flavour puddings, cakes, sweets, sorrel drink, and to make ginger beer.
Rum
Rum is a by-product of sugar. It was in the Caribbean by the English planters in the island of Barbados early in the 17th century. The rough brew, originally called "kill devil" and rum Bullion was gradually tame and ennobled and was brought to perfection in Jamaica in the 18th century.
Created during the age piracy rum is evocative of glamour and daring romance. It has proved infinitely adaptable to the taste of different generations and is more versatile than other familiar alcoholic beverages such as whiskey, gin or vodka. There are many types and varieties of rum and Jamaica produces a wider range of rums than other country in the world.
Prepared by The National Library of Jamaica