Grassland of the world (2024)

Joseph G. Boonman and Sergey S. Mikhalev

SUMMARY

The steppe crosses the Russian plain, south of the taiga,penetrating deep into Siberia. It comprises three main types, which run inroughly parallel bands from east to west: forest steppe in the north, throughsteppe, to semi -desert steppe in the south. Within these belts, zones oftemporary inundation on floodplains or in zones of internal drainage providevaluable hay land. The steppe was increasingly ploughed for crops during thetwentieth century; initially crops were rotated with naturally regeneratedgrassland, but from mid-century cultivation was increasingly intensive. Duringthe collective period, the emphasis was on industrial stock rearing, with housedcattle and high inputs; since decollectivization, intensive enterprises areclosing for economic reasons, and systems have yet to stabilize. If ploughedland is left undisturbed it will return naturally to steppe vegetation in six tofifteen years. Hay is very important for winter feed, and much is made fromseasonally flooded meadows. Many marginal, semi-arid areas of the steppe havebeen put under crops, but are not economically viable; much of the cereals soproduced are fed to livestock, but grain yields are very low and yield no morelivestock products than would natural grassland, but at far higher cost.Marginal cropland should return to grass.

Introduction

North of the Black and Caspian Seas, straddling both Don andVolga catchments, lies a stretch of steppe that saw some of the lasthorse-mounted nomadic tribes of Europe in action as late as the end of thefifteenth century. These were the Tatar of the Golden Horde. Then an equallyheroic force, now of self-proclaimed free farmer-soldiers, whose mixed -farmingwith crop and livestock was community- and family-based, later called Cossacks,emerged to hold the newly acquired frontiers of Tsarist Russia.

Throughout history, the Russian steppe had been a naturalboundary that deterred major civilizations or migrations from entering throughits southern gateways. Not physical obstacles - in fact both Don and Volga aremajor navigable rivers and run from north to south - but the sheer size andemptiness of country that had to be traversed effectively separated the northfrom the south. Although in search of new granaries, ancient Greek colonizationdid not extend much further than the coastal rims of the Black Sea. In a similarfashion, the empires of Rome and even nearby Byzantium made very few inroadsinto what would develop, at the start of this millennium, into the Russianheartland. The only, yet major, exceptions were invasions by the Huns in thefourth and by the Mongols in the thirteenth century, but these emerged from thesame long stretch of steppe, near its far eastern fringe.

Figure 10.1
Extent of grasslands in the RussianFederation.

This vast Eurasian plain - with taiga in the north, forest inthe middle and the steppe as its southern flank - stretches over 10 000 km fromwest to (south)east, from the Baltic Sea and crosses the Dnepr, Don and Volgarivers, deep into Siberia across the Urals, which convention has designated asthe border between Europe and Asia (Figure 10.1). Most of the country’sfarm land is in the so-called "fertile triangle", with its base along thewestern border from the Baltic to the Black Sea and that tapers eastward to thesouthern Urals, where it narrows to a strip about 400 km wide extending acrossthe southwestern fringes of Siberia.

This chapter discusses the steppe; an overall description of Russian pastures and ruminant production systems is given in the Country Pasture Profile for the Russian Federation (Blagoveshchenskii et al., 2002), to be found on the FAO Grassland Web site <http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Counprof/russia.htm>.

The steppe inperspective

Truly virgin steppe has become a rarity, especially west ofthe Urals. The last major onslaught took place in the 1950s, when huge campaignsto raise agricultural production led to 43 million hectares of steppe beingsacrificed to the plough, seemingly for ever (Maslov, 1999). It virtually meantthe end of the virgin steppe in the Volga region, in Kazakhstan and westernSiberia. The land put to the plough rivalled in size the whole of Canada’sagricultural area.

As part of the collateral damage, interest in and knowledge ofthe steppe as a natural resource became rare in the eyes of the authorities, andfaded as the experts themselves passed from the scene. Should activeextensification and steppe rehabilitation, of which there is little sign atpresent, appear at some stage again on the agendas, it will have to draw on theold literature records, such as are being recalled in this chapter. Theserecords are of further importance as they developed independently fromscientific and managerial thinking in the West, especially in the USA, wheresimilar vegetation types seem to have given rise to quite different approaches,both in science and in management. Recent literature from the Russian Federationon the subject is mostly related to satellite imagery and ecological modelling(Gilmanov, Parton and Ojima, 1997). To avoid confusion, and because ofthe reliance here on older literature, the botanical names will be quoted asoriginally reported. Consequently, we use Euagrypyron and Agropyronrepens rather than Elytrigia repens.

Current tendencies in Russian agriculture are that thelarge-style arable units of the former Kolkhozy and Sovkhozy collectiveproduction units are retained as the central and collective core, mainly forcereal production, with only a little livestock held centrally. Livestock willbe divorced further from the collective by the kolkhozniki themselves andbecome more family-based. Sooner or later, family herds will have to rely onfamily-run pastures, hayfields and by-products of their own arable operations.At present, communal and public grazing resource s are used by privately ownedlivestock.

Is history repeating itself? Grazing rights shared out by oramong the village community (mir) were typical of the pre-revolution era.While the grazing land - and often the grazing itself - was communal, livestockwere family-owned. Fenced-off grazing blocks and "ranches " were rare. Althoughlarge landholdings in the more prosperous agricultural regions were the rule,landlords invariably had to cope with large resident communities of peasants andwith their demands for cropland, pasture and hay for their cattle in return forlabour. Does the present-style Kolkhoze fulfil the role of the pre-revolutionlandlord? Do peasants continue to expect to be provided for as before? Is aRussia with family-based autonomous farms still a long way off?

The Russian steppe, like many of the major natural grasslandsof the world, is a formidable natural resource. With the present land-reformprogrammes following a new, often uncharted, course it may well be that thenatural grassland and, in particular, the steppe will resume a large part of itsold significance as a primary grazing resource. The Former Soviet Union(FSU)-industrial-style Kolkhozy and Sovkhozy, with livestock housed throughoutthe year, have proved uneconomic and unsustainable. Family-based mixed farmingwith paddock grazing may develop in parallel with the current tendency ofgrazing the kolkhozniki herds on natural grassland and steppe. Permanent ortemporary pasture as a resource of grazing and fodder may regain prominence atthe expense of annual fodder and grain crop. Half of the cereal crop, it wasclaimed, was fed to livestock. Maize used to be grown for silage on more than 10million hectares, often in areas either too cold or too dry, whether aided ornot with supplementary irrigation. The agronomic, economic and environmentalimplications of these new developments for outdoor grazing, though largelypositive on balance, provide a formidable challenge.

Semantics

Luga, senokosy i pastbishcha [meadows, hay meadows andpastures] and Lugovodstvo [meadow cultivation ] are Russian terminologyto emphasize the distinction commonly drawn between land for hay or for grazing,respectively, where the English language would simply refer to grassland.Russian terminology tends to distinguish between "meadows" as dominated byhay-type grasses and "pastures" as utilized through grazing, whereas thisdistinction has little meaning in contemporary English. However, in Russianterminology, the term "meadows" (composed of mesophytes) is often used incontrast to "steppe" (xerophytes), and assumes significance in dry steppe landcrossed by rivers, which are bordered by extensive floodplains that harbour themeadows. Meadows have a more temperate and humid climate resonance (Shennikov,1950). Meadow and steppe are used as descriptive terms away from the landscapeor geographical zones they represent. The continued usage in Russian of termssuch as meadow steppe, desert steppe and mountain steppe add to the confusion(Gilmanov, 1995). In this chapter, grassland is used in the general sense,including steppe, whereas pasture refers to a particular field or application.Maize silage is a fodder and so are Sudan grass and alfalfa, but the latter arecalled forages when grazed.

Emphasis on hay as the principal source of fodder to seecattle through the winter has been typical of Russian "grassland " terminology.Early mention of haymaking by the northern Slavs date back to the birth of theircivilization, around 1000 A.D. Numerous are the references in the arts to"village hay-festivals" as the entire peasant community was engaged in theprocess of mowing and bringing in the hay. Hay, rather than fodder crops, wasthe rule. A high ratio of meadow to arable land was essential to sustain farming(Chayanov, 1926). Fodder beet, rape and turnips were much less grown than inmore Atlantic climates further west. One reason was that most of the hay wasderived from low-lying meadow land that had no other economic use. Second, thegrowing season for fodder crops is either too short, in the north, or too dry,in the east and south, or both. Even alfalfa is a late arrival; it is believedto have been grown in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan before the Greco-Persian wars ofthe sixth and fifth centuries BC; it is, however, unlikely to have reached theVolga region earlier than it did Western Europe because of the geographicnorth-south isolation mentioned above.

Climate, vegetation andsoils

Somewhat Atlantic in climate at its start near the Baltic Sea,on its way east the Eurasian plain is met by an increasing severity and lengthof continental winters, precluding arable cropping at the eastern extreme. Highlatitudes and absence of moderating maritime influences determine the harshcontinental climate prevalent in Russia. Huge mountain ranges along the southernborders and Central Asia preclude penetration of maritime tropical air masses.The Arctic Ocean acts as a snow-covered, frozen mass rather than a relativelywarm ocean influence. As the territory lies in a westerly wind belt, warminfluences from the Pacific Oceans do not reach far inland. In winter a largecold high-pressure cell, centred in Mongolia, spreads over much ofSiberia.

In the low-pressure system of summer, warm and moist airpushes from the Atlantic Ocean well into Siberia. In many areas, however, thesummer rainfall distribution is not always advantageous for agriculture. Juneand July are often dry, while rain may interfere with cereal harvest in August.Annual precipitation decreases from over 800 mm in western Russia to below 400mm along the Caspian Sea.

Climate and vegetation fuse in zones that extend across thecountry in eastern-western belts. The tundra of the Arctic coast, with itspermafrost and vegetation of mosses, lichens and low shrubs, is too cold fortrees. The next (sub-Arctic) zone is the boreal (coniferous) forest, the taiga,occupying two-fifths of European Russia and most of Siberia. Much of this regionalso has permafrost. Large areas are devoid of trees, primarily because of poorlocal drainage, and the vegetation is marshy. The soils of the taiga arepodsolic and infertile.

Further south stretches a belt of mixed forest from SaintPetersburg in the north to the border with Ukraine in the south. Themixed-forest grades through a narrow zone of forest-steppe before passing intothe true steppe.

True steppe, as distinct from the forest -steppe furthernorth, is predominantly a grass vegetation with a few stunted trees only insheltered valleys. The true steppe belt begins along the Black Sea coast,encompasses the western half of the northern Caucasian plain, and extendsnortheast across the lower Volga, the southern Urals and the southern parts ofwestern Siberia.

Together with the forest -steppe, the steppes form thechernozem belt, the agricultural heartland of Russia. The forest-steppe is blackchernozem soil, high in organic matter (OM) and minerals, and better wateredthan the steppe. Steppe soils are somewhat lower in OM, but high in minerals,and many are also classified as brown-steppe (chestnut).

Ecologicalclassification

In the Russian Federation with its vast uninterrupted plains,zones delineating the major vegetation types agree conveniently with climaticzones and, in a way, also with major soil types. Typically, these zones tend torun in semi parallel belts in a slightly northwesterly to southeasterlydirection.

Topography, watercourses and variation in soil conditionsbecome relevant at the rayon [a small territorial administrative division] orrather at the (former) Kolkhoz or Sovkhoz level. It was at this unit level thatgrassland description was to be refined and effected for land management and,ultimately, grassland improvement. Both the objective and framework of theapproach were prescribed. However, more than elsewhere in the world,classification in the country lost itself in attempts to be all-USSR in compass,ending up with hundreds of codes and numbers. Colloquial terms could have summedit all up in one word (e.g. mochazina - non-peaty swamp; liman -flooded steppe in the lower reaches of rivers). Impeded drainage means swamp inthe northern forest country, but lush pasture in the steppe. Conversely,overgrazing can lead to bareness to an extent that the vegetation assumes theappearance of a drier climate than rainfall data suggest. Grasslands - andsteppe are no exception - are an integration of climate, soil, animal andman-made conditions. Vegetation may often provide a better guide to theagricultural environment than the instruments of meteorologist or geologist(Whyte, 1974). "What are the main species and what do they tell us?" is often amost relevant question.

Grasslands are subject to fluctuations in composition, butrecurring patterns are recognized. The major features, physiognomy (the aspectin terms of height, density and cover) and species, are fairly constant or theyoscillate around a certain equilibrium, both between and within woody andherbaceous species. Major changes are usually a long-term affair. Only whengrassland is artificially drained permanently of excess water, or altereddramatically by repeated ploughing and cropping, can changes in the vegetationbecome irreversible. As we will see, steppe is relatively quick torestore.

Ecological (site)potential

Much as early classifications were based on botanicalcomposition, awareness was growing that ecological potential could be related toa recognizable vegetation group. To many observers, however, current vegetationis a very poor indicator of ecological potential and possible land use. Theproblem is then how to reconcile current vegetation with ecological potential.Classification means one thing to the specialist in phytogeography, but quiteanother to the planner concerned with grassland improvement. Site potential -that is, the vegetation that ecological factors indicate should dominate - isthe guiding factor. A climax vegetation can be reconstructed based on naturalsuccession towards an equilibrium with the environment. This process may beinterrupted and vegetation may then be described as, say, a "fire subclimax " ora "grazing subclimax". The concept of climax should relate to site potential asdetermined by physical factors of the environment: climate, soil and topography.Tundra, steppe and semi -desert are then ecoclimatic zones, which can becharacterized further by plant species and associations to delineaterecognizable types of vegetation.

The term grassland or steppe is here used to denote avegetation that is dominated by grasses and occasionally herbs, whatever theplant succession. The grasses used in cultivation today are those found growingin the wild yesterday (e.g. Poa pratensis). Natural and cultivatedgrasses are still close (Boonman, 1993). "Natural" should not be taken to meaneither primitive or unproductive, nor should "natural " be equated with climaxor static. In current colloquial use, "natural grass " has come to mean any ofthe following: 1. Grass, unsown; 2. Grass sown, but long ago and now run-down,in contrast to recently sown; 3. Local, as opposed to exotic grass species; or4. Primitive, as opposed to improved and sown grass. It has become customary toequate natural grassland with anything that can be grazed, but that is not(known to be) sown. Often it is also meant to denote the grazing land as it wasassumed to have been since time immemorial, or "as it ought to be".

TABLE 10.1
Important species of the Russiansteppe.

NOTES: (1) Based on heading dates in the steppe(beginning of growth ca mid-April).

Some notes on important steppe species are shown in Table10.1.

Ramenskii’s grasslandclassification

In Russian literature on grassland classification, littledirect reference can be found to discussions that have prevailed in the West,that is, to Clementsian succession with its climax terminology or to the morerecently proposed transition-state models, nor to the Braun-Blanquet approach ofcharacterizing vegetation. The "Markovian model" is at times referred to, but ishard to distinguish from that of Clements. By contrast, note was taken in theWest of the work done in Russia by L.G. Ramenskii (Sorokina, 1955). In hisstandard work, Ramenskii (1938) emphasized the need to judge land in the mostcomprehensive manner and that all factors, biotic and abiotic, be taken intoaccount to explain why certain variations ("modifications") in the vegetationoccur. Ramenskii’s classifications are known as "phytotopological" withmajor emphasis on the habitat. First, all natural grassland is divided intodryland or floodplain. Second, subdivisions are based on topography and moistureconditions. No less than 50 categories were formulated, each with 22subdivisions based on moisture conditions. Within similar habitats, severalplant associations occur.

Plate 10.1
Agropyron pectiniforme.

For instance, on dark-chestnut loamy soil of the dry steppeplains, Ramenskii found the following associations as grazing intensityincreases:

• in virgin steppe,a low-grass sward with Stipa lessingiana (Plate 10.2), but lessFestuca sulcata;

• after a few years,predominantly Festuca sulcata;

• under intensive grazing,Poa bulbosa associations; and

• finally, after excessivegrazing, an association with Polygonum aviculare.

This is typical succession-regression (see also Table 10.2).Ramenskii’s analysis of the constituents of the vegetation itself was notquantitative, but estimated by so-called vertical "projection", by simplyestimating the degree of cover at one particular date. No mechanical devices forranking constituent species or for weighing samples were employed. Potentialyields were estimated from empirically established standard graphs (see alsosection below on Botanical condition).

After ploughing and cropping steppe for several years, thefollowing appear in the fallow:

• First year:annuals.

• Second and third year:biennial and perennial herbs.

• Third and fourth year:Agropyron racemosum emerging.

• Fifth to eighth year:Agropyron racemosum over 80 percent of the herbage, with Festucasulcata (Plate 10.3) emerging.

• Festuca sulcatapredominant.

• To about the fifteenth year:Stipa lessingiana becomes predominant (return to the initial virginsteppe).

  See Also

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Plate 10.2
Stipa lessingiana

TABLE 10.2
The effect of grazing intensity on grasslandchanges

SOURCE: Larin, 1956.

Plate 10.3
Festuca sulcata

Thus, at least five distinct associations are found. Dependingon the manage ment of the fallow and on the previous cropping history of theland, several tens of associations may be distinguished. Although eachmodification has significance for current utilization, habitat potential remainsvery much the same. Shennikov, therefore, preferred to allocate Ramenskii’svirgin low-sward grass stage to "herbaceous steppe"; the Agropyron fallowto "(mesophilic) meadow type" and the Polygonum association to"herbaceous annual vegetation ", all forming part of the Herbosa basictype of vegetation (see below). Shennikov’s was a commendable effort ofamalgamating the elements that unite rather than divide.

The emphasis at the time on terminology such as "phytocoenosis" and "zoocoenosis ", together forming the biocoenosis and interrelating withthe biogeocoenosis, is worth noting (Sukachev, 1945). Another emphasis was thedivision into four vegetation types: 1. Lignosa - tree-shrub; 2.Herbosa - herbaceous plants (see above); 3. Deserta - desertplants; and 4. Errantia - various.

Shennikov’s hierarchy for a particular situation mightbe: 1. Vegetation -type group: Herbosa. 2. Type of vegetation: meadow(humid-grassland mainly used for hay). 3. Class of formations: true meadow (asagainst steppe or swamp). 4. Formation group: coarse grass, coarse sedge. 5.Formation: Alopecurus pratensis dominant. 6. Association group: variousadmixtures of Alopecurus pratensis. 7. Associations.

Sukachev’s classification is "phytocoenological", whereasRamenskii’s is "phytotopological", and the latter’s example wasfollowed by Dmitriev (1948) and Chugunov (1951). However, the distinction isoften blurred. Ramenskii’s seral stages of plant succession, although notcoined as such by him or his successors, are classical examples of linearClementsian succession.

Conversely, bare ground is colonized by ruderals, which giveplace to seral grassland stages as organic matter accumulates and these areeventually replaced by taller bunch grasses. Clements (1916) ideas provedapplicable not only in USA, but also in Canada (Coupland, 1979, whose work usedto be quoted in Russia) and in East and South Africa (Phillips, 1929). It isdoubtful if it ever was Clements’ aim to apply the succession model to allsituations liable to transition, or to claim that climax vegetation was the mostdesirable or most productive from the agricultural point of view in allsituations. Plant succession can be studied with the aim of identifying thepreferred seral stages with desirable composition. As we will see in Russia,many instances can also be found in which some of the seral stages (fallow land)are considerably more diverse and productive in herbage than the climaxvegetation itself. It goes too far, however, to regard this as counter-evidencefor the succession model. As in the Great Plains of USA, the climax grasses ofthe Russian steppe are productive and acceptable to livestock; they provideground cover to protect soil and are effective plants in utilizing environmentalgrowth factors to fix carbon and to cycle nutrients.

The interplay of biotic, climatic and edaphic components ofthe environment is relevant, as these modify the dynamics of grasslandcommunities. Efforts at grassland improvement are directed at manipulating thebotanical composition to encourage the more desirable species and suppress thoseless desirable. A basic thrust in current grassland improvement has been thecomparison of the current site condition with what it ought to be, i.e. sitepotential. Acknowledgement of various stable vegetation states at a particularsite widens the scope for opportunistic management that is responsive to abioticevents and that is not bound under all circ*mstances by doctrines that abhorfire or that only value stocking rates that are moderate.

Botanical condition (ecologicalmonitoring)

Few are the instances where ecological techniques can havesuch an impact on practical management decisions in agriculture as thosedeveloped in grassland science. Botanical assessment has proved a more reliableand efficient criterion of condition, and, therefore, of productivity ofgrassland, than yield measurements themselves. Given the enormous tasks ofnatural resource management ahead, it is appropriate here to draw attention tonew techniques of botanical grassland surveys.

The FSU had "State Institutes for Land Control" in eachrepublic, which carried out surveys about every ten years on the same(grass)land. Surveys were and are applied with strict adherence to FSU-widemethodology that has seen little change over the decades. The emphasis wasprimarily on maximizing production, that is, on setting animal production levelsand, ultimately, the levels of grants and credits extended to the agriculturalenterprises to meet these production levels regularly. For their part, Kolkhozyand Sovkhozy were required to produce grassland inventories, with a denominationof vegetation, soil type, other physical conditions as well as details ofcurrent utilization and proposed improvements for each area on themap.

The methodology in use for the measurement of yield-on-offerin quadrats (rope-frames) is quite complex and labour intensive. Components areseparated by hand and analysed. The chemical analysis estimates feed units andprotein of the edible portion, which is equated with the green material presentin the sample. To achieve this, the technique uses a variable height of cutting,giving that portion of growth that is most likely to be grazed. Conversion ofthese data to animal production is not, however, flawless. True growth - notjust yield-on-offer - can only be assessed by placing protective cages andmoving them around at each sampling. Without reference data, carrying capacitycannot be assessed instantaneously.

Botanical analysis using the current methodology providesrelative proportions, on an air-dry basis, of the species present in thequadrat, but the data are not used to full ecological potential. Since theemphasis is on measuring for setting animal production, botanical data are notapplied to monitor composition or succession-regression compared with thepreferred composition. In fact, the said proportions could provide more valuableinformation on the successional status of a pasture than any other observationsmade. Botanical data are more powerful predictors of pasture condition thanyield data and can be assessed in a meaningful and less laborious way, e.g. bythe dry weight rank (DWR) technique (‘t Mannetje and Jones,2000).

Production measurement used to be the approach in the FSUsurveys. With the shift from being a part of the centrally planned productionadministration to agencies responsible for the resource management of thecountry, there has to be a reassessment of what technology is now relevant. Theultimate objective of the new-style monitoring is to rehabilitate the grasslandsto acceptable preferred composition and to keep them at the preferredcomposition.

Decentralized development and devolved management of grazingrights - at the level of rayon, village, if not of the individual - call for achange in methodology and its ultimate application, in keeping with therequirement for natural resource management at the national level. Newtechnologies proposed for monitoring and measurement that are accurate and costefficient are the DWR technique for botanical composition and, when required butnot essential, the comparative yield estimate (CYE) technique foryield-on-offer. Additional information to determine condition is also needed(plant size, sward density, soil condition).

Monitoring involves checking changes in the condition ofgrassland through monitoring the changes in composition and the changes in soilcondition. With the data acquired, management and stocking rates can be adjustedto prevent or reverse degradation. Conversely, measuring involves assessing theproductivity of grassland through measurement of true growth rather than ofyield-on-offer. With the data acquired, stocking rates can be adjusted tomaintain livestock productivity. Rather than production-oriented measurement,ecological parameters have been found to be the most valuable and cost-effectiveapproach to monitor grassland condition. An up-to-date description of grasslandmonitoring methods, approaches and tools can be found in ‘t Mannetje andJones (2000).

Husbandry should be directed towards maintaining a dynamicequilibrium around the preferred botanical composition that is the targetpasture composition for sustainable development. The preferred compositiondiffers from earlier, more orthodox, interpretations of Clementsian succession,which hold that the most desirable and only stable or sustainable composition isthe climax. Numerous are the examples whereby climax grasses are found to beless productive than those at an intermediate position in thesuccession.

Steppe dynamics in relation tobotanical composition

Weather

A few examples should suffice. Poa pratensis in theforest zone as well as Festuca sulcata and Agropyron sibiricum inthe steppe preserve their green shoots under the snow until spring and somegrowth may occur, even under the snow. Assimilation and growth begin in springat temperatures of 3-5°C. Ephemerals and "ephemeroids" (Russian termdenoting perennials whose vegetative parts die down annually, e.g. Poabulbosa) flower in spring, the rest in early summer. Plants dry off assummer peaks, dormancy sets in, and tillering is not resumed until the rainsreturn in autumn. Weather conditions of the preceding season have a markedeffect. Without snow cover, a whole range of plants perish, including cloversand ryegrass. When the soil is not frozen but has a thick cover of 30 cm of snowfor more than three months, these and other plants will die off(vyprevanie), probably because of continued respiration. A snowlesswinter followed by a cold spring and drought may prevent seed set in thesurviving grasses.

From fallow to steppe

The following transitional stages from fallow onto virginsteppe used to be considered characteristic: 1. Annual weeds. 2. Perennialweeds. 3. Rhizomatous plants. 4. Bunch grasses. 5. Secondary virgin steppe.However, in more modern thinking, the earlier of these stages are notnecessarily hierarchical but often run parallel, with the rhizomatous stage attimes little in evidence.

Russia’s foremost early grassland improvement pioneer,V.R. Vil’yams, had repeatedly pointed out, circa 1920, that theinterrelationships between plant and environment are such that one soil-plantcomplex is replaced by another. He even took this to the extreme that, in thesod-formation process, forests thin out naturally and finally give way tograssland. Shennikov (1941) repudiated this part of Vil’yams concept andargued that a forest -to-grassland conversion is not observed in nature, unlessman-assisted by clearing and burning and, occasionally, under the influence ofmass destruction by insects active in the forest floor.

Vil’yams had, however, rightly drawn attention to thephenomenon of organic matter accumulation in grassland soil, as well as to theageing and subsequent decline ("depression") in productivity of (new) grassland(Mid-term depression; Soil-chemical effects of grasses). In his view,grassland that has reached the "densely-tufted phase" is degenerate, beyondrehabilitation and should be ploughed and re-sown, fertilizer at this stage notbeing worthwhile. However, as we will see below, attempts aimed at arresting andencouraging the fallow grass phases dominated by more desirable plants can bringabout the improvement wanted.

The Steppe and its types

In 1954, of the whole territory of Russia (1 690 millionhectares), some 144 million hectares were under natural grassland (hay meadowand pasture) before the crop expansion campaigns (Table 10.3). If tundra wereincluded, another 206 million hectares should be added. Kazakhstan had arelatively small area under meadows (12 million hectares against 176 millionhectares) while Ukraine, in contrast, had relatively little grassland as awhole. Fallow is usually included under arable and not undergrassland.

Data for 1998, from the Russian Academy of AgriculturalSciences (RASHN), put the total for Russia at 83.6 million hectares of grassland(37 percent of agricultural land), with 21.6 million hectares and 62.0 millionhectares for hay meadows and pastures, respectively. The difference from 1954,60 million hectares, is estimated to be 17 million hectares, representing steppethat was ploughed in the 1950s (Maslov, 1999).

TABLE 10.3
Area under natural grass (millions ofhectares), not including tundra, 1954.

NOTES: (1) Excluding fallow land.
SOURCE:Administrativno territorialnoe delenie soyznykh respublik, 1954.

Forest steppe

Between the forest zone in the north and the semi -desert inthe south stretches the steppe belt. Characteristic of forest steppe is thealternation of forest islands and large areas of more herbaceous vegetation. TheEuropean part is considerably more humid (460-560 mm) than the Asian part(315-400 mm), and warmer. Whereas, in the forest-steppe zone, the relief ishilly on the western side of the Urals, lowland plains prevail in westernSiberia, with many depressions occupied by lakes and marshes.

In the European forest steppe, practically all catchment areasoccupied by chernozems are under cultivation. Small areas of forests consist ofbirch, aspen and oak. Grasslands have remained on steep slopes and near theriverbeds (flood meadow s). Because of intensive grazing, Poa angustifoliaand Festuca sulcata predominate. On better preserved hayfields (Plate10.4), a wide variety of grasses (Calamagrostis epigeios and species ofAgropyron, Bromus, Festuca, Phleum and Poa) and legumes(Trifolium pratense, T. repens and Medicago, Vicia and Lathyrusspp.) and herbs are found. Hay yields of 1 000-1 500 kg/ha used to berecorded, and were considered good. In overgrazed areas, yields are only a thirdof that.

In the Asian part of the forest steppe, forests used to occupyup to 15 percent of the territory and consisted of birch, aspen and willow, butno oak. Groundwater levels are high, so swamps are common. Much less of the landhas been ploughed than on the western side of the Urals, and then mostly on theridges. On the plains, solonetzic soils and typical chernozems (mainlysolonetzic) predominate. The predominant plant is Calamagrostis epigeios,which is very typical of western Siberia. Other species are Poa pratensis,Galatella punctata and Peucedanum ruthenicum. Hay yields are 600-800kg/ha.

Plate 10.4
Haymaking in a forest -steppefloodplain.

S.S. MIKHALEV

TABLE 10.4
Climate data of thechernozem-steppe.

SOURCE: Chibilev, 1998.

Steppe

The steppe zone covers an area of 143 million hectares. Theclimate (Table 10.4) is more continental but becomes more humid towards thefoothills of the mountain ranges (Caucasus, Urals and Altaifoothills).

The principal soils of the steppe are chernozems and darkchestnut soils. However, in the Rostov (Salsk and Primanchy steppe) andVolgograd regions, as well as in Kazakhstan, solonetz and solonchaks arenumerous.

Characteristic of the steppe are treeless plains with adominance of Stipa spp. and Festuca sulcata. Trees and shrubs areconfined to depressions and ravines and include Caragana frutex, Spiraeaspp., Amygdalus nana, and Cytisus spp. Steppe grasses,including the xerophytic types, cease activity in summer and dry up entirely.With new rains in late August and early September, tillering recommences. Insharp contrast to the forest and forest-steppe zones, ephemerals and ephemeroidsappear in spring and conclude their cycle of development in 60-70 days. From thehusbandry point of view, the following subdivision seems useful: 1. Virginsteppe and old fallows. 2. Mid-term fallows of 2-3 to 7-10 years. 3. Youngfallows.

Virgin steppe

Only small isolated islands of steppe were preserved in theEuropean part of the FSU: Askaniya, Starobelsk, Khrenovskaya, Streletskaya(Olikova and Sycheva, 1996). Larger areas used to occur in Russia in the Salskand Primanchy steppe in Rostov Oblast [region], in Volgograd Oblast and inStavropol Kray. Closer to the Caspian Sea, in the northern parts of the DagestanRepublic, stretches the sandy, semi -arid Nogayskaya steppe. The largest areasare in Kazakhstan, but, apart from the solononetz and solonetzic soils, millionsof hectares were sacrificed to cropping in the 1950s and 1960s.

As pointed out earlier, the distinguishing lines between thevegetation of virgin steppe and old abandoned fallows are blurred, so that muchof the uncropped land may soon return to steppe and not bear much sign of havingbeen cropped for so long. The underlying processes that help to facilitate thisreturn are emphasized here, with a focus on the work done in the period whenvirgin steppe still formed a formidable grazing and hay resource.

In fact, the grass swards of the steppe are - also when stillgreen and in active growth - low (<10 cm) and rich in herbs in the northernareas, and rich in xerophytic species in the southern areas. Reported hay yieldsare no more than 700 kg/ha in the north and 450 kg/ha in the south. In view ofthe inherently high soil fertility and total precipitation, a somewhat moreproductive sward would be expected, especially when at the same time a huge massof vegetation (>1 m high) is found in nearby flood -meadows. This contrast,which is especially evident in early summer, is simply too large to be explainedaway by limitations posed by nitrogen availability (immobilization versus siltdeposition), drought versus flooding, or by early grazing versus late haymaking.The hypothesis formulated here is that the lack of vigorous growth in steppevegetation is largely because - by the time of stem elongation in April/May -insufficient moisture (in the form of rain) is available or can be drawn upon tomake mineralized nitrogen available. In addition, because of severe winters,very little of the soil organic matter has decomposed by that time. Cropnutrition studies have shown that, on arable land in chernozem soils, some 75kg/ha nitrogen is mineralized and another 75 kg P2O5 is made available eachyear. Steppe vegetation was mainly used for extensive grazing in spring andautumn. Where Festuca sulcata is plentiful and snow not too heavy, wintergrazing can be satisfactory in southern regions.

Semi-desert

The semi -desert stretches in a crescent along the northernshores of the Caspian Sea in European Russia and then covers large parts ofKazakhstan. Western Siberia has no typical semi-desert. The crescent begins withthe Nogaskaya steppe in northern Dagestan, crosses Kalmykia and south ofVolgograd towards Astrakhan, on the Volga estuary, and past Guryev, intoKazakhstan. In the FSU, semi-desert totalled 127 million hectares. Snow inwinter is light enough to permit winter grazing. The climate of the semi-desertis, however, more continental than that of the steppe. Low moisture and hightemperatures in summer are conducive to the development of solonchaks and,especially, of solonetz, although the soils are mainly light chestnut and brown.Small variations in microrelief, with very shallow depressions, add to theheterogeneity of the vegetation. Typical of the semi-desert are large sandystretches ("barkhan " dunes) and "liman " (flood meadow s in lower reaches ofsemi-desert rivers). Flat areas ("plakor") east of the Volga typically consistof sub-shrub associations: Artemisia pauciflora + Kochia prostrata (Plate10.5), interspersed with ephemerals and ephemeroids (e.g. Poabulbosa, Tulipa spp. and Allium spp.). Near shallowdepressions, grasses consist of Festuca sulcata, predominantly, followedby Agropyron pectiniforme, Stipa lessingiana and Stipacapillata and a mixture of herbs. Incidentally, Festuca sulcatatogether with Stipa capillata or Stipa lessingiana are alsotypical of "mountain steppe" at 1 000-3 000 m altitude.

Plate 10.5
Kochia prostrata

Plate 10.6
Artemisia lercheana

Meadow types

Liman

Due to the exceptional flatness of the surrounding area, semi-desert rivers that spread out over enormous areas in spring often never reachthe Caspian Sea, and form the meadow areas called limans (Mamin andSavel’eva, 1986). Such areas can be 30-40 km wide, but shallow enough forwheeled transport to pass. Intense evaporation and high watertables promote thedevelopment of solonchaks and solonetz, with predominance of halophytes ortolerant plants (Artemisia spp. (Plate 10.6), Puccinellia spp.,Atriplex verrucifera and Agropyron repens). Patterns of concentricrings emerge, with water receding from the perimeter towards the centre, apattern that is reflected in the vegetation. Artemisia monogyna andAtriplex verrucifera are in the outer rings that are rarely flooded andthen only for a few days. The area may be hundreds of hectares in size. Furthertowards the centre, the rings or strips flooded once in two to three months withwater in a layer of 30-60 cm until June/July produce stands of almost pureAgropyron spp. that grows up to 150 cm and gives hay yields of 6 000-7000 kg/ha. The centre and lowest parts of the liman may consist of reedthickets. In the FSU, limans used to occupy over 7 million hectares. Needless tosay, limans are of great economic significance in the Saratov and Volgogradregion, and may take much of the pressure off the surrounding catchment grazingareas. Only minor ditches need to be constructed to lead water to areas with themost valuable fodder plants (Agropyron repens, Agropyron pectiniforme andEuagropyron spp., with Medicago sativa ssp. falcata, Bromusinermis and Beckmannia spp.).

Typical plants of the favourable parts of the sandy (loam)stretches are Artemisia arenaria, A. astrachanica, Carex colchica, Kochiaprostrata, Agropyron sibericum, Stipa capillata and S. joannis. Inlower places, the water table may be at 100-200 cm. Agropyron sibericumis the most valuable grass in this environment, yielding up to 1 000 kgDM/ha. Heavy grazing is believed to pulverize the top soil and increaseAgropyron sibericum at the expense of Artemisiaastrachanica.

Floodplain meadows

The steppe is traversed (Plate 10.7), in a north-southdirection, by some of Europe’s largest rivers. When in spate, large areason either side are inundated. First in early spring, with the snow melting inthe region itself; second, in late spring, when the waters of snow melting inthe north arrive. Flood meadows are found over the whole length of the rivercourse. The limans, in contrast, are confined to the lower reaches and in flatsemi -desert country.

In the FSU, the total area covered by floodplain meadows(Plate 10.8) was over 30 million hectares, divided equally between hay andgrazing. Their value is rated higher the drier the nearby catchment. As with thelimans described earlier, vegetation is much determined by the frequency,duration and depth of flooding, as well as by the degree and quality of siltsedimentation. All sorts of classifications have been thought out. Prolongedflooding over 40 days or more is withstood by Phalaris spp., Bromusinermis, Stipa pratensis and many Carex spp. (Table 10.5). Prolongedflooding is the rule in the floodplains of the greater steppe rivers (Dnepr,Don, Volga, Ural). Salination (solonchaks) is common in the outer reaches (upperflood meadows).

Plate 10.7
Forest -steppe with a floodplain inthe distance.

S.S. MIKHALEV

Plate 10.8
Forest -steppefloodplain.

S.S. MIKHALEV

TABLE 10.5
Distribution of flood meadowvegetation.

Three major zonal strips can be distinguished:

1. Close to the river: Artemisia dracunculus,A. pontica, A. campestris, Glycyrrhiza spp. (liquorice, in floodplains - avery common but high-tannin legume), Calamagrostis epigeios, Bromus inermisand Stipa capillata. Bromus inermis dominates in the lowerparts.

2. Central: Festuca sulcata, Euagropyron spp. andAgropyron spp. on the higher parts. Agropyron spp. dominant in thelower parts, with Carex spp. in the depressions.

3. Periphery, close to the watershed: Festuca sulcata,Stipa capillata and Agropyron sibiricum on the more elevated andnon-saline sites, together with various herbs and steppe shrubs. In the lower,solonetzic, parts Agropyron pectiniforme predominates, orGlycyrrhiza spp. with Agropyron spp. and Alopecurusspp.

On solonchaks, Puccinellia spp. with Artemisiamonogyna is most prevalent. Flood meadows are a principal source of hay. Inthe steppe itself, hay yields off Euagropyron and Puccinelliameadows are 1 000 kg/ha. Tall-grass associations (species of Bromus,Agropyron, Festuca, Alopecurus and Phleum) give hay yields of5 000 kg/ha. With Phalaris spp., yields can be even higher. Inevitably,abuse by overexploitation occurs. Grazing hay meadows in early spring or in latefall should be discouraged. Alternative uses for early or late hay on the onehand and for grazing on the other should be encouraged. Swamps with reed,bulrush and sedge are common. When deciduous trees (aspen, poplar, elm, oak) arefound in the steppe, it is mostly close to the watercourses.

Fallow

Mid-term to old fallow

From the tenth to fifteenth years of fallow, Stipa spp.and Festuca sulcata begin to dominate and the land resembles virginsteppe.

Young fallow

In the first year, botanical composition is little differentfrom the previous arable weed composition, which reflects preceding crops andtheir husbandry. The commonest plants are annuals such as Chenopodium album,Salsola kali, Setaria spp., Artemisia absinthium, A. sieversiana,Brassica campestris, Sonchus arvensis, Polygonum aviculare, P.convulvulus, Avena fatua, Camelina spp., Thlaspi arvense, Lappulaspp., Sisymbrium spp., Berteroa spp., Lactuca spp.,various thistles, Erigeron canadensis, Urtica cannabina, Crepis tectorum,Bromus tectorum, and Cannabis sativa. Perennials develop and begin topredominate: Cirsium arvense, Sonchus arvensis, Artemisia campestris, A.frigida, A. austriaca, Melilotus alba, Gypsophila spp., Achilleamillefolium, Falcaria vulgaris, spurge (Euphorbiaceae) and Potentillaargentea, together with rhizomatous grasses such as Agropyron repens, A.racemosum, Calamagrostis epigeios and Bromus inermis.

Much higher herbage yields are obtained in the fallow phase.Larin (1956) speaks of 4 000-8 000 kg/ha of fresh and 1 000-2 000 kg/ha of drymatter, whereas the steppe produces no more than 800 kg/ha of hay! Lowproductivity of the virgin steppe itself, in comparison with high productivityof (unsown) green fallow on top of intermittent crop yields, has no doubt been amajor incentive to plough virgin steppe, at least on the richer and betterwatered soils.

However, green fallows are heterogeneous and many of theherbaceous weeds are ignored by the grazing animal, such as Chenopodiumalbum, Artemisia spp., Thlaspi spp., Salsola kali and otherthistles. Herbs are grazed highly selectively, not least because of the widerange in date of flowering and maturity. This is an advantage in summer, whenthe virgin steppe itself has dried off. Hay is then a better alternative andmany Russian authors claim that when the mixed herbage is turned into silage,the rate of utilization is higher than when grazed. Conversely, Agropyronrepens, Avena fatua, Bromus spp. and Setaria spp., together withherbs such as Sonchus arvensis, Polygonum convolvulus, Polygonum aviculareand Brassica campestris provide relatively good pasture, with 2 500-3500 kg/ha of edible fresh matter.

As the fallow period develops, rhizomatous perennials takeover in about the fourth to fifth year: Agropyron repens on chestnutsoils, A. racemosum on lighter soils, and Bromus inermis andCalamagrostis spp. This is the most valuable fallow phase from the herbagepoint of view. Agropyron hay is highly valued. Patches with Achilleaspp., Artemisia austriaca and A. frigida may still be much inevidence. In the final stages of return to the virgin steppe, rhizomatousgrasses and Artemisia spp. begin to give way to Festuca sulcataand Stipa spp.

Avenues of steppeimprovement

Land and grass resources in the steppe zone are grosslyunderutilized. Most farms are overstocked, yet even on the better farms infavourable areas, yields of both milk and cereals are not high enough. Suchfarming is prodigal with land, nutrients and labour. In the continuing debate onhow to preserve the environmental resource base, it is high time to point outthat there can be no excuse for the deterioration of very large areas of land inorder to produce crops or livestock at such low efficiency (Boonman,1993).

Efforts towards intensification need not necessarily implyhigh costs. Low-input strategies must optimize results from the efforts alreadymade. Correct timing can double the effect of a particular input, e.g.early sowing or fertilizer application. Conversely, cash inputs should not bedismissed too lightly as "uneconomic" or "outside the reach of poor farmers"because it is well known that farmers recognize and adopt an improvement (e.g.using seed of a superior new cultivar) when they see its value. Dairy productionis a profitable part of mixed farming since milk, if produced throughout theyear, tends to command high prices and bring in regular cash income. Greatadvances are often made by simple measures, especially in animalnutrition.

As for grass resources, natural grasslands may seeninsignificant in their outward appearance and even less so in their response toimproved husbandry. In spring their start is slow and growth ceases earlier inautumn, compared with elite sown grasses. However with the same amount ofintelligent care, primary (natural or virgin) grassland often needs noreplacement at all by sown pasture grasses, let alone by legumes. Secondarygrassland (fallow land) is not very static as it passes through its variousstages of transition or succession, which differ with different husbandrysystems. If the rhizomatous or Agropyron stages are the most productiveof all, it is advantageous to extend and maintain that phase for as long aspossible. Rotational grazing shows advantage over continuous grazing insituations where the quantity of available herbage is low, and this is the casethroughout the year on most of the steppe. The proportion of desirable grasses,legumes or herbs can be manipulated with the aid of the grazing animal. Cuttingcan be another useful tool. Many hay meadows, in well -watered if notperiodically flooded areas, have developed under age-long haymaking. Apart fromproviding feed for winter, cutting would seem an automatic tool to control manyshrubs.

Management interventions

Grazing

Grazing is the most potent of biotic factors; many palatable,annual herbs disappear forthwith. Russian authors at one time generally heldthat taller grasses, especially those with sizeable aftermath, maintainthemselves well in hay meadows but much less under grazing only and are,consequently grazed out first. In the steppe, Stipa capillata is such anexample, compared with Festuca sulcata, Euagropyron spp. andKoeleria gracilis. A note of caution needs to be sounded here. No doubt,some of the less competitive species may have long flowering culms. Betweenspecies, however, height of the vegetative sward and eventual height offlowering culms are poorly correlated. Lolium perenne and Festucarubra are obvious contrasts. Also, it is not entirely clear what theconfounding effects in a sward are of growth stage, palatability and residualleaf area of any given species in competition with others. Whether plants with"lower cauline-leaved rather than upper cauline-leaved foliage" are necessarilymore competitive under grazing, is therefore doubtful. Competitiveness of agenotype is also poorly related with potential herbage yield in pure stands(Boonman and van Wijk, 1973). See also the sections on Haymaking and on Sownforage, below.

Plate 10.9
Poa bulbosa.

Poa bulbosa (Plate 10.9) heads early in spring and isthereafter not eaten. Artemisia austriaca forms a rosette. As grazingintensity increases, Polygonum spp. and other annuals (Cruciferae,Compositae) remain and take over. The factors responsible are not necessarilythe actual grazing itself but associated phenomena, such as compaction due totreading. The effects of grazing on soil compaction and soil moisture retentionare recurrent themes. Hoof impact is the cause of disappearance of moss andlichen from grassland. Positive effects of scattered dung and urine are onlyevident when the pasture is sufficiently moist and stocked by at least 0.5Livestock Unit (LU) per ha. In the steppe, the effects are minimal, if notnegative, because grass on and around dung pats is avoided by the grazinganimal. The grazing animal is also believed to assist in plant pollination andin the distribution of seed, although volunteer seedlings contribute little tothe productive sward (Rabotnov, 1969), and when they do so it is mostly in theform of annuals to make up for loss of cover.

Grazing (stocking)management

Russian authors generally agree about the advantage ofrotational grazing. If the ultimate aim is to match, if not to synchronize, thesupply of available forage with the demands of the grazing animals or tomaintain the vigour of acceptable pastures, then various scenarios are possible.Haymaking is a strong Russian tradition. A lot of the debate in other countriessuch as USA and Australia on the pros and cons of rotational versus continuousgrazing has ignored the very role and place of grass conservation. Grassconservation is essential to carry productive dairy stock through winter or dryseason, but mowing is also a convenient husbandry tool to regulate the supply offresh grass and put a brake on grass growing too fast in the most favourableparts of the season (Boonman, 1993). It is obvious that no hay can be made undercontinuous grazing, so direct comparisons with rotational grazing may bemeaningless. However, the lines dividing the two allegedly opposite systems areblurred. Are fields, grazed in daytime by animals that are housed elsewhere atnight, grazed "continuously", or is this not rather a fixed form of "rotational"grazing of 12 hours on + 12 hours off? Is a field grazed continuously if for thegreater part of the dry season it is excluded from grazing? Fields grazed onlyonce every 15 days, however lightly, are also difficult to portray as beinggrazed continuously. What if animals are tethered and moved daily within thesame field? The arguments are often largely academic, but the choice in practiceis often one of simple convenience.

In Europe, with emphasis on dairying, which implies dailyhandling of the animals, rotational grazing within fenced but relatively smallareas is the rule. Rotational grazing goes hand in hand with crop-pasturerotation s in mixed farming, as all fields need to be protected from unwantedgrazing. On large beef cattle estates, fencing, if any, may be reduced to theperimeter. Still, absence of fencing and the imposition of herding does notimply that grazing is continuous. On the free range, grazing rotations arenaturally imposed by the presence or absence of water and by seasonaldifferences in the vegetation, so that rotation may take the form of a grazingprocession rather than of a rotation. Seasonal grazing areas may develop asseparate entities (Boonman, 1993).

Haymaking

Like grazing, cutting also has direct and indirect effects.The haymaking season in Russia is relatively late, in hot mid-summer (July).Soil is exposed, topsoil dries out and is compacted by subsequent rain. In mixedvegetation, shade-loving species perish and this is particularly so in secondarygrassland following forest clearing. Late-heading species are also at adisadvantage. As we have seen above (in Grazing), species with uppercauline-leaved foliage were believed to be at an advantage under haymakingregimes. It should be repeated that although species differ in their reaction toeither grazing or cutting and, as a result, produce a different botanicalcomposition, it is difficult to attribute this to plant stature alone. Redclover and other herbs produced distinct types whether under cutting or grazingregimes with early and late heading types, respectively (Shennikov, 1941).Variation in cutting date also has considerable effect on species composition.Land that is continually used for haymaking becomes more and more impoverishedand yields decline. In the forest zone, moss reappears. Floodplains in theYenisei valley, after being cleared from willows and alders, changed undercontinuous haymaking, with dominance first by Calamagrostis langsdorffii,five to eight years later by Anthriscus silvestris and finally byAlopecurus pratensis (Vershinin, 1954).

Fire

Burning is an additional factor, if not a tool, in themanagement of steppe and semi -desert. Some even believe that the tree-lesssteppe is the result of burning, rather than of climate or soil. Burning isnecessary to deal with "starika" - dead vegetation or standing hay of previousyear(s). Burnt soil covered with ash warms up and dries out more quickly. Soilnitrogen is released. Subsequent herbage yield may not be increased, is ratherdecreased, but regrowth after burning is more nutritious. On the negative side,absence of cover by the onset of winter adds to reduced snow and moistureretention for subsequent spring regrowth. In Festuca/Stipa/Artemisiasteppe, burning increases Stipa spp. (Plate 10.10), Agropyrondesertorum (Plate 10.11) and Festuca sulcata, but decreasesArtemisia spp.

Ploughing

Of all the husbandry measures, ploughing has the most dramaticeffect on botanical composition. The effect is largely temporary, with thesteppe returning to its "original" state within ten years. It is not clearwhether the length of this moratorium is linearly related to the intensity andkind of cropping. Most of the steppe has seen the plough at some stage, but thelast and major onslaught in terms of area came in the 1950s, when millions ofhectares of the remaining virgin steppe were sacrificed to cropping.Fortunately, however, the insight that permanent cropping was impossible withoutdisastrous effects on soil quality prevailed. Fallowing was the rule, ideallyuntil the "transition of fallow land into virgin land", as formulated by N.G.Vysotskii in 1915, was completed. Nevertheless in more recent decades, newpolicies and campaigns of heavy mechanization, combined with fertilizer,herbicides and irrigation, posed as serious a threat to the fallow as the ploughhad earlier meant to the steppe itself.

Plate 10.10
Stipa species.

Plate 10.11
Agropyrum desertorum.

Uncontrolled tumble-down fallow is a nuisance to subsequentcropping as it encourages rather than suppresses some of the principal weeds.Conversely, bare fallows, however desirable from the weed control and perhapsthe water conservation points of view, are not conducive to restoring soilstructure.

Physical improvements

The principal step in steppe improvement is to preventdeterioration by inferior or harmful material and species. Dominance of superiorconstituents cannot, in many instances, be achieved by grazing with a specificor varied kind of livestock alone. Intentional elimination of less desirablespecies and starika is needed to complement the action of grazing, cutting oreven burning. Oversowing (without adequate soil preparation) is rarely worth theeffort as seedlings have great difficulty in establishing themselves in anestablished sward, however sparse, except perhaps in genuinely humidenvironments. Some effective measures are: 1. removal of tussocks, shrubs andstarika; 2. removal of litter and brushwood after floods; 3. regulation of siltdeposition on floodplain meadows; and 4. regulation of the water regime(drainage of stagnant surface waters; liman irrigation; temporary flooding offloodplain meadows; construction of ice dykes; protection for snowretention).

A lot of the clearing can be done with appropriate machineryand the same applies to the levelling that is needed to enable a field to bemown for hay. The removal of major deficiencies in moisture and fertilityconditions contributes to the prevalence of more desirable grasses and orclovers; the same applies to regimes of alternate grazing and mowing on the onehand and of early and late mowing on the other. By assisting the correctdistribution of spring waters, natural limans can be improved without greateffort. Solonchaks and boggy places should not receive water.

Snow retention through windbreaks and standing vegetation isanother effective measure in the forest steppe, steppe and semi -desert zones.Crop yields are greatly increased. In experiments by N.G. Andreev in the 1930sin Saratov Oblast, yields of Agropyron racemosum on fallow land wereraised by 50-75 percent (see also Andreev, 1974a,b). Elsewhere,Stipa-Festuca sulcata pastures increased by 16-31 percent in yield(Larin, 1956). Snow retention can be combined with arrangement of ridges andfurrows to block the flow of water from melting snow.

Examples of the effect of managementon botanical composition

Stipa capillata, common on virgin steppe and old fallowin the Rostov, Volgograd and Stavropol areas, is troublesome since the seed hasawns which, when caught in the wool not only spoil it, but bore through the skinand when in greater numbers can cause death of goats and sheep. Burning hasproved useless. Grazing with larger herbivores is recommended. Light grazing,especially when early, and early mowing increases rather than decreases thisgrass. Pastures should not be grazed earlier than the heading phase ofFestuca sulcata and Stipa lessingiana. These grasses will thenremain almost uneaten and will go to seed, while the later heading Stipacapillata will be eaten out selectively. Mowing of Stipa spp. must beconducted systematically from early head-emergence right up to the floweringstage and aftermath growth must be grazed or mown in fall. These pastures arebest grazed by cattle (and horses) and, when there is little Stipa spp.,by sheep. Stocking pressure should be increased for two to three consecutiveyears.

Medicago polymorpha can be abundant in the steppe ofEuropean Russia. Although it is well eaten, M. polymorpha can be a mostharmful plant because the pods spoil the wool. It can be suppressed by hard andprolonged grazing. Herbicides are also effective.

Artemisia spp. (A. lercheana, A. pauciflora, A.astrachanica) are reduced by burning, and grasses such as Festucasulcata, Euagropyron spp. and Stipa spp. areencouraged.

Fertilizer

Fertilizing the steppe is only mentioned in passing here. Theeffects of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium on yield, on quality and onbotanical composition are well established (Smurygin, 1974) and differ littlefrom what is found in similar soil conditions in the West. Unlike in steppe,phosphorus and potassium are a pre-condition in lowland marshy conditions and inacid soils in the north. The most spectacular fertilizer is nitrogen. However,land-to-capital ratios in most of Russia are such that nitrogen fertilizer isbest reserved to those situations where all the limiting factors mentionedearlier have been removed and where moisture conditions are favourable to enablethe grass to benefit fully from the fertilizer applied. Such circ*mstances arerare. However, most of all, fertilizer should be profitable in terms of theproduce from the livestock fed from it. Most of the fertilizer is used on dairyfarms in the forest zone in the north near the major cities. Yield increases indry matter from 2 to 8 t/ha were reported from the Tula and Kaluga regions(Larin, 1956). In the view of the authors, grassland and grazing will soonregain their rightful place in Russia at the expense of arable fodder crops suchas maize grown for silage. More and better use will also have to be made ofmanure and urine, one of the most neglected resources at present, especiallyfrom the storage point of view. Night grazing, through mobile camps ifnecessary, should be the rule, were it only to benefit by the manure and urinedropped on the spot.

Legumes should also fare better under balanced manure andfertilizer regimes. In the view of the authors, clovers should be highlyappreciated where their continuous presence can be assured. Inducing clovers bysowing and other measures is often not only costly but also temporary in itseffect. Savings on nitrogen fertilizers may be offset by the extra requirementsfor other fertilizers, especially phosphate.

As far as the steppe zone is concerned, the same developmentas regards fertilizer is forecast for the better-watered areas, the floodplains.P and K are usually not in short supply. Some botanical effects observed in thesteppe vegetation are worth mentioning. At the Baskhir Experimental Station,Mikheev and Musatova (1940) found that Festuca sulcata gave way to Poapratensis as the result of manure (30 t/ha). The same manure increased hayyield by (only) 1 900 kg/ha. Sedges also tend to be reduced and Agropyronspp. are encouraged.

Mid-term depression

Newly established grasslands tend to go through a depressionafter a few years, and this was recognized early by Vil’yams. Morepersistent varieties, together with better N-nutrition, have done much toalleviate this problem. Steppe fallow land with Agropyron repens ishighly valued. After a few years, however, it tends to give way to the lessvaluable Poa angustifolia and Festuca sulcata, and yields may bereduced by half. Re-ploughing the field helps to rejuvenate the Agropyronrepens, especially when combined with N-fertilizer and when used first forhay and subsequently for grazing. The same applies to A. racemosum in theVolgograd area, western Siberia and Kazakhstan, where it formerly coveredmillions of hectares. Hay yields were often doubled. Measures to promote snowretention are essential. The introduction of machinery like the rotovatorfacilitated destroying the existing sward. A more recent and valuable aid isglyphosate as an effective but very safe herbicide.

Sown forage

For many engaged in increased fodder production, all themeasures mentioned above are not effective enough. Refuge is sometimes sought insowing perennial grasses, with or without legumes and with or withoutintermittent arable cropping. However annual fodders such as maize for silageand oats, lent themselves more easily to the industrial style agriculture soughtafter in the FSU. A lot of maize is grown in Russia in areas north of latitude55°N, which are considered too cold in the West (e.g. Scotland, Denmark),and many of the areas are too dry for silage maize. Late springs with latefrosts and winter frosts as early as the first half of September shorten thegrowing season for maize even more radically. Existing, commercialearly-maturing hybrids are not early enough for large parts of Russia; theproblem has still not been solved, neither agronomically nor economically, letalone from the environmental point of view.

Short of complete ploughing and reseeding, over-sowing hasbeen recommended at times. Perhaps this was inspired by positive resultsobtained with over-sowing in areas that had been cleared of trees and shrubs inthe more northerly forest zone. However doubtful in economic terms such advicemight be for steppe conditions, the species recommended are worth mentioning:Bromus inermis, B. erectus, Agropyron pectiniforme, A. sibiricum, A.desertorum, Euagropyron spp., Festuca sulcata, Medicago sativa, M. s.subsp. falcata, Melilotus alba, sainfoin (Onobrychisviciifolia) and Kochia prostrata (Chenopodiaceae). In regions east ofthe Urals with abundant late-summer rainfall, annual forages such as oats, rye,Sorghum sudanense, vetches and peas were experimented with forover-sowing but the recommended list is considerably reduced for normal pasturesowing (after proper land cultivation): Medicago sativa, M. s. subsp.falcata, Onobrychis, Bromus inermis, and Agropyron pectiniforme with,in addition, for the dry steppe: Agropyron sibiricum and Festucasulcata (Larin, 1956). No indications exist as to what extent such sowingshave been experimental or commercial, nor to what extent implementation washindered by the obvious limitations of seed availability of some of theseunusual species. Remarkable in this listing is the absence of Festucaarundinacea. More recent experience has shown that Agropyron cristatumis perhaps the best grass for sowing (T. Veenstra, pers. comm.).

As was customary at the time, complex mixtures were consideredsuperior to single-species as a matter of course, on purely theoretical grounds,such as risk aversion. More modern thinking - not shared by biodiversityadherents - has it that less competitive species, however productive, are betterleft outfrom mixtures from the start because they are doomed to disappearrapidly from the sward anyway. The aim should be the "ecological combiningability" of potential partners, an ability that does not necessarily have muchto do with morphological or botanical differences. As long as alleged advantagesof complex mixtures cannot be substantiated, simple mixtures are advocated, ifonly to reduce seed costs. A considerable amount of energy was spent in FSU dayson calculating "norms" for sowing of each species in accordance withGoststandart (All-Union State Standards).

The dilemma

Many observers regard virgin steppe as not productive enoughas a grazing or fodder resource. Sown pastures have great potential but requirea high level of expertise and are often too short-lived. Continuous arablecropping consists mostly of wheat, with yields of grain scarcely higher thanthat of the old steppe’s hay. The irony is that in FSU over half of thegrain was fed back to livestock. The steppe is on the one hand too fertile notto be cropped and to be left to "ranching", but on the other too dry to becropped intensively and permanently. All three pathways - grazing, cropping andan integration of the two - have in the past been explored, both empirically andexperimentally. In the view of the authors, the best alternative land use is onecrop of wheat alternated with long spells under grass fallow, or sown pasturesof shorter duration. Alfalfa is grown separately on the best and irrigated land.Grass hay is brought in from the floodplains. Marginal land is best returned tosteppe.

Crop-pasture rotations

V.R. Vil’yams (1922, 1951) was one of the firstscientists to publish research results on the subject ("travopol’naya") andon the special role of grasses in soil fertility. Crop rotation regimes used tobe strictly preached, but in FSU practice it was lip service to the "rotation"doctrine rather than consistent application of Vil’yams’ example. Muchvalue was attached to having a fodder crop or a grain legume in the rotation,irrespective of the fact that these covered the soil for no more than six monthsand were harvested whole, without much residue left or returned to the soil.Maize is often harvested first for grain and in the second pass for the stalksand foliage made into silage. If a crop-rotation effect does appear it isperhaps just as likely to be due to "just another crop" than to the specificeffects usually attributed to semi -permanent grasses or legumes. In actualfact, the effect may be simply one of suppression of specific weeds, pests ordiseases, and may also be brought about by other arable crops.

Physical effects of grasses on thesoil

Soil science used to be highly developed in Russia, not onlysoil classification. The unique role that grass plays in restoring soil qualitylost after cropping was recognized in Russia earlier than in the West. Ininvestigations carried out by N.I. Savvinov at the Saratov Malouzenski SolonetzStation, the length of all roots in the top 40 cm soil layer was, six monthsafter sowing, almost three times greater in Agropyron pectiniforme thanin alfalfa of the same age (Larin, 1956). Intensity, rather than depth, ofrooting was considered important.

Soil organic matter and methods of increasing it are commonlyassociated with high soil quality, because a soil rich in organic matter isoften productive and can sustain arable cropping for long periods. Such a soilwill also trap rainwater rather than let it cause erosion (Klimentyev andTikhonov, 1995).

Cultivation, in contrast, is accompanied by a decline inorganic matter and by subsequent mineralization. Under continuous croppingwithout inputs, little organic matter is added or returned whereas losses aremuch greater. In capitalized farming systems in temperate climates, with highinput of fertilizers and mechanical or chemical weed control, organic matter iscommonly regarded as less critical and organic matter may be left to find itsown level and may be maintained by crop residues. High, albeit not the highest,yields have been obtained under continuous cropping without special attention toadding organic matter.

Evidence has been presented to indicate that a grass break incrop rotations preserves soil structure and punctuates the nutrient drain incrop removal. Improved structure may reveal itself in less erosion or in betterplant establishment and, finally, in better yields. However, the immediateeffects on topsoil structure are the most obvious. Erosion control also appliesto conditions of grazing. Overgrazed land is not only more liable to erosion, itsuffers more from drought, due to loss of snow cover and of rainwater.

Mixed farming based on crop-grassrotations

In Russia, alternatives to deal effectively with maintainingsoil quality and combating soil erosion are not within easy reach of thesmall-scale farmer and - unless good basic husbandry is guaranteed - often noteconomically justified. The impression is that continuous cropping cannot besustained on the majority of soils at the present low levels of fertilizer,biocides and mechanization. In present-day farming practice, however, improvedproduction of grass for feeding cattle is the main motive inducing farmers toplant pastures. If stock that help to improve soil fertility are kept, theyshould themselves be profitable. In the same fashion it is not profitable togrow legumes for the main purpose of fixing nitrogen.

The large expansion in arable area in the 1950s and 1960s inthe FSU was at the expense of the steppe. The first crops after ploughing weregood. Most of the remaining grassland was soon broken and converted into arableland. Very little new grass was sown. It was perhaps not appreciated that thefertility encountered had been built up through grassland. Conversely, forageproduction was promoted primarily as a means of improving animal production.Efforts were directed at separate components, e.g. dairying based on maizesilage or on zero-grazing, with little regard for the soil-degrading effect thispractice has.

In the 1970s and 1980s in the FSU, direct grazing became rareand was sacrificed to large-scale stall-feeding and to zero-grazing operationsbased on fodder crops such as maize and oats. Many of these operated on theextreme edges of the mixed -farming scene, and lost sight of the crop-livestockintegration perspective.

In the past decade, by contrast, village herds haveincreasingly began to roam the surrounding countryside. Communal or publicgrazing resource s are increasingly threatened by livestock privately owned.Workable solutions are needed to come to the aid of vulnerable grasslands,livestock, crops and soils, especially for the small mixed -farm family.Although the former large Kolkhoz-style arable farming units may be retained asthe central and collective core, livestock production will continue to becomemore and more family-based. Sooner or later, family herds will have to be fedfrom family-run pastures and from by-products of the arable operations. Thisshould provide a sound basis for crop-pasture rotation s.

Conclusions

The political and social changes of the past fifteen yearshave had a marked effect on grassland and livestock production systems. Thegreat industrial livestock units based on indoor feeding are now few, and manyhave broken up for economic reasons. Much of the ruminant livestock is now insmall family-owned herds, often too small for economic herding. A fresh approachto grazing rights and stock management is needed to ensure that the new grazingsituation maintains livestock production while avoiding environmental damagethrough overuse of nearby grassland while neglecting more distant pastures. Thiswill require interventions in two fields: first, facilitating the development ofgroup herding so that families can collaborate to hire a common herder to managetheir joint herds; and, second, by allocating grazing rights and responsibilityfor pasture maintenance to such groups.

Much marginal land has been ploughed to produce meagre cropsof cereals, which has largely been used for stock feed. Such land can bereturned to grassland fairly simply: steppe is relatively easy to restore whencropland is abandoned to fallow. If economic conditions are propitious, it canbe reseeded - reseeding techniques and adapted ecotypes of suitable grasses areknown. Sown grasses may bring temporary relief, but they should be sufficientlypersistent and economically justified, compared with spontaneous fallow grasses.Sown pastures require careful husbandry and considerable expertise. Return oflarge areas of unprofitable cropland to grassland makes sense bothenvironmentally and economically.

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