European traders had sought access to Chinese markets for centuries before the era of high imperialism. For example, the port of Macau was leased to Portugal in 1557. However, Portugal, at the time, was not strong enough to threaten to control much of China. In fact, Portugal paid rent to access this city. China was able to limit the power of these traders by restricting them to the port of Guangzhou (or Canton) and by taxing their trade; because of this, European traders were seemed as annoying, yet ultimately profitable. In the 19th century, Britain would far surpass Portugal in its capability to control parts of China.
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In 1793, George Macartney of Britain travelled to China to request that limitations on traders be lifted and that China grant Britain a small island as a hub for its trade with China. This was because British trade companies stood to make significant profit off of buying goods from China, such as tea, silk, and porcelain, then selling those goods at a higher price to others. The Qing Emperor refused Macartney's request, as he claimed that China had no need of European traders.
In order to balance the demand for Chinese goods, the British East India Company, its most powerful trade corporation, began to grow opium in India for sale in China. Opium, an addictive drug, would soon become Britain's key weapon to control China. Britain's other weapons were more practical. By the 19th century, it had technologically surpassed China and could now deploy armored gunboats, which far outmatched Chinese ships. The British Empire by now was well-practiced in gunboat diplomacy, which refers to the strategy of displaying military power in order to intimidate others to concede to demands.
The Opium Wars
The use of opium, produced in British India, would skyrocket in use in China as many became addicted to the substance, leading to widespread social ills. In 1796, China banned the drug, but European traders continued to smuggle the substance into the country. Meanwhile, rebellion against the Qing Empire drove the Chinese government to raise more taxes on trade.
In 1839, the Qing government launched an anti-opium campaign. Storehouses were seized, British trade ships were boarded, and stockpiles of opium were burned. Fights erupted between Chinese officials and British tradesmen. This would launch the first of two Opium Wars.
The First Opium War
Quickly, Britain sent a fleet against the Qing Empire to secure respect for British trade interests and compensation for the destroyed property. The British gunboats defeated the Chinese navy, sailed inland along major rivers, bombarded Chinese troops, and occupied several major cities.
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In the Treaty of Nanking, China agreed to give the island of Hong Kong to Britain, pay reparations, and permit traders to operate in other port cities besides Guangzhou. This was the first of the unequal treaties, in which China was forced to sacrifice control of parts of the country to foreign powers.
The Second Opium War
Now that Britain knew how easily it could expand its power in China, it would look for further opportunities to do so. In 1856, China seized a vessel flying the British flag that was suspected of piracy. This enraged Britain and incited the Second Opium War. Britain was joined by other great powers, who also wanted to expand their power in China.
The war ended with the Treaties of Tientsin, wherein China opened more ports to foreign trade. Accusing the emperor of trying to renege on the agreement, British and French forces continued the war, burning the Summer Palace.
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