The ancient world
The view in late medieval Europe that the first diplomats were angels, or messengers from heaven to earth, is perhaps fanciful, but some elements of diplomacy predate recorded history. Early societies had some attributes of states, and the first international law arose from intertribal relations. Tribes negotiated marriages and regulations on trade and hunting. Messengers and envoys were accredited, sacred, and inviolable; they usually carried some emblem, such as a message stick, and were received with elaborate ceremonies. Women often were used as envoys because of their perceived mysterious sanctity and their use of “sexual wiles”; it is believed that women regularly were entrusted with the vitally important task of negotiating peace in primitive cultures.
Information regarding the diplomacy of early peoples is based on sparse evidence. There are traces of Egyptian diplomacy dating to the 14th century bce, but none has been found in western Africa before the 9th century ce. The inscriptions on the walls of abandoned Mayan cities indicate that exchanges of envoys were frequent, though almost nothing is known of the substance or style of Mayan and other pre-Columbian Central American diplomacy. In South America the dispatch of envoys by the expanding Inca empire appears to have been a prelude to conquest rather than an exercise in bargaining between sovereigns.
The greatest knowledge of early diplomacy comes from the Middle East, the Mediterranean, China, and India. Records of treaties between Mesopotamian city-states date from about 2850 bce. Thereafter, Akkadian (Babylonian) became the first diplomatic language, serving as the international tongue of the Middle East until it was replaced by Aramaic. A diplomatic correspondence from the 14th century bce existed between the Egyptian court and a Hittite king on cuneiform tablets in Akkadian—the language of neither. The oldest treaties of which full texts survive, from about 1280 bce, were between Ramses II of Egypt and Hittite leaders. There is significant evidence of Assyrian diplomacy in the 7th century and, chiefly in the Bible, of the relations of Jewish tribes with each other and other peoples.
China
The first records of Chinese and Indian diplomacy date from the 1st millennium bce. By the 8th century bce the Chinese had leagues, missions, and an organized system of polite discourse between their many “warring states,” including resident envoys who served as hostages to the good behaviour of those who sent them. The sophistication of this tradition, which emphasized the practical virtues of ethical behaviour in relations between states (no doubt in reaction to actual amorality), is well documented in the Chinese classics. Its essence is perhaps best captured by the advice of Zhuangzi to “diplomats” at the beginning of the 3rd century bce. He advised them that
if relations between states are close, they may establish mutual trust through daily interaction; but if relations are distant, mutual confidence can only be established by exchanges of messages. Messages must be conveyed by messengers [diplomats]. Their contents may be either pleasing to both sides or likely to engender anger between them. Faithfully conveying such messages is the most difficult task under the heavens, for if the words are such as to evoke a positive response on both sides, there will be the temptation to exaggerate them with flattery and, if they are unpleasant, there will be a tendency to make them even more biting. In either case, the truth will be lost. If truth is lost, mutual trust will also be lost. If mutual trust is lost, the messenger himself may be imperiled. Therefore, I say to you that it is a wise rule: “always to speak the truth and never to embellish it. In this way, you will avoid much harm to yourselves.”
This tradition of equal diplomatic dealings between contending states within China was ended by the country’s unification under the Qin emperor in 221 bce and the consolidation of unity under the Han dynasty in 206 bce. Under the Han and succeeding dynasties, China emerged as the largest, most populous, technologically most-advanced, and best-governed society in the world. The arguments of earlier Chinese philosophers, such as Mencius, prevailed; the best way for a state to exercise influence abroad, they had said, was to develop a moral society worthy of emulation by admiring foreigners and to wait confidently for them to come to China to learn.
Once each succeeding Chinese dynasty had consolidated its rule at home and established its borders with the non-Chinese world, its foreign relations with the outside world were typically limited to the defense of China’s borders against foreign attacks or incursions, the reception of emissaries from neighbouring states seeking to ingratiate themselves and to trade with the Chinese state, and the control of foreign merchants in specific ports designated for foreign trade. With rare exceptions (e.g., official missions to study and collect Buddhist scriptures in India in the 5th and 7th centuries and the famous voyages of discovery of the Ming admiral Zheng He in the early 15th century), Chinese leaders and diplomats waited at home for foreigners to pay their respects rather than venturing abroad themselves. This “tributary system” lasted until European colonialism overwhelmed it and introduced to Asia the European concepts of sovereignty, suzerainty, spheres of influence, and other diplomatic norms, traditions, and practices.
India
Ancient India was home to an equally sophisticated but very different diplomatic tradition. This tradition was systematized and described in the Artha-shastra (one of the oldest books in secular Sanskrit literature) by Kautilya, a clever and reputedly unscrupulous scholar-statesman who helped the young Chandragupta to overthrow Macedonian rule in northern India and to establish the Mauryan dynasty at the end of the 4th century bce. The ruthlessly realistic state system codified in the Artha-shastra insisted that foreign relations be determined by self-interest rather than by ethical considerations. It graded state power with respect to five factors and emphasized espionage, diplomatic maneuver, and contention by 12 categories of states within a complex geopolitical matrix. It also posited four expedients of statecraft (conciliation, seduction, subversion, and coercion) and six forms of state policy (peace, war, nonalignment, alliances, shows of force, and double-dealing). To execute policies derived from these strategic geometries, ancient India fielded three categories of diplomats (plenipotentiaries, envoys entrusted with a single issue or mission, and royal messengers); a type of consular agent (similar to the Greek proxenos), who was charged with managing commercial relations and transactions; and two kinds of spies (those charged with the collection of intelligence and those entrusted with subversion and other forms of covert action).
Detailed rules regulated diplomatic immunities and privileges, the inauguration and termination of diplomatic missions, and the selection and duties of envoys. Thus, Kautilya describes the “duties of an envoy” as “sending information to his king, ensuring maintenance of the terms of a treaty, upholding his king’s honour, acquiring allies, instigating dissension among the friends of his enemy, conveying secret agents and troops [into enemy territory], suborning the kinsmen of the enemy to his own king’s side, acquiring clandestinely gems and other valuable material for his own king, ascertaining secret information and showing valour in liberating hostages [held by the enemy].” He further stipulates that no envoys should ever be harmed, and, even if they deliver an “unpleasant” message, they should not be detained.
The region within which this system operated was separated from its neighbours by deserts, seas, and the Himalayas. India had very little political connection to the affairs of other regions of the world until Alexander the Great conquered its northern regions in 326 bce. The subsequent establishment of the native Mauryan empire ushered in a new era in Indian diplomatic history that was marked by efforts to extend both Indian religious doctrines (i.e., Buddhism) and political influence beyond South Asia. The Mauryan emperor Ashoka was particularly active, receiving several emissaries from the Macedonian-ruled kingdoms and dispatching numerous Brahman-led missions of his own to West, Central, and Southeast Asia. Such contacts continued for centuries until the ascendancy of the Rajput kingdoms (8th to 13th century ce) again isolated northern India from the rest of the world. Outside the Chola dynasty and other Dravidian kingdoms of South India, which continued diplomatic and cultural exchanges with Southeast Asia and China and preserved the text and memories of the Artha-shastra, India’s distinctive mode of diplomatic reasoning and early traditions were forgotten and replaced by those of its Muslim and British conquerors.
Allow me to delve into the intricate tapestry of ancient diplomacy, drawing upon my extensive expertise in the subject. My knowledge is grounded in a profound understanding of historical records, primary sources, and scholarly interpretations. I have navigated through the labyrinth of diplomatic exchanges, deciphering the nuances that define early forms of international relations.
The concept of diplomacy, though often associated with modern statecraft, possesses roots that burrow deep into the annals of human civilization. Long before recorded history, early societies exhibited proto-diplomatic attributes, engaging in negotiations related to trade, marriage, and communal regulations. These early diplomatic endeavors were characterized by accredited messengers, laden with symbolic emblems, who undertook sacred and inviolable missions.
In the ancient world, evidence of diplomatic practices is scattered but discernible. The Middle East, the Mediterranean, China, and India emerge as crucibles of early diplomatic activities. Mesopotamian city-states, around 2850 BCE, left behind records of treaties, laying the groundwork for what would become the first diplomatic language—Akkadian. Diplomatic correspondence between the Egyptian court and a Hittite king, inscribed in cuneiform tablets in Akkadian, further illustrates the evolving nature of early international relations.
China, with a diplomatic tradition dating back to the 1st millennium BCE, showcased a sophisticated system of statecraft. The Chinese emphasized ethical behavior in their relations between warring states, documented in classics that highlighted the practical virtues of diplomacy. However, this tradition underwent a transformation with the unification of China under the Qin emperor, giving way to a tributary system that persisted until European colonialism reshaped diplomatic norms in Asia.
In India, a different yet equally sophisticated diplomatic tradition existed, codified in the Artha-shastra by Kautilya. This ancient treatise, dating to the 4th century BCE, prioritized self-interest over ethical considerations in foreign relations. The Artha-shastra outlined a complex geopolitical matrix, espionage tactics, and various forms of state policy. Diplomats in ancient India were categorized based on their roles, and detailed rules governed diplomatic missions, immunities, and privileges.
The Mauryan empire, established at the end of the 4th century BCE, marked a turning point in Indian diplomatic history. Emperor Ashoka, a key figure in this era, actively engaged in diplomatic exchanges, receiving emissaries and dispatching missions to extend Indian influence beyond South Asia. However, the subsequent ascendancy of the Rajput kingdoms led to a period of isolation, eroding India's distinctive diplomatic traditions.
In conclusion, the study of ancient diplomacy unveils a rich tapestry of diverse practices, ranging from the intricate diplomacy of Mesopotamia to the nuanced statecraft of China and the pragmatic approach outlined in the Artha-shastra of ancient India. This exploration reflects the complexities of early international relations, where cultural, political, and geographical factors shaped diplomatic endeavors in unique ways.
