culture (2024)

Social Structure; Social Groups; andOrganizations

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(This navalformation exemplifies one kind of group that sociologists call a formalorganization).

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· American Anthropological Association

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· U.S. Census Bureau

· The White House

· U.S. Department of Labor

· U.S. Government Sites

SECTION CONTENTS

Social Structure

Components of Social Structure

Socio-Cultural Evolution

Pre-Industrial and Industrial Societies

The Importance of social Groups

Definition of a Group

Leadership in Groups

Group Size

Group Formation

Group Boundaries

Group Decision-Making

Communication; Conflict; Group Cohesiveness

Formal Organizations

Section I: Social Structure

Sociologists define the concept,"society" as a group of interacting individuals whoshare the same territory and participate in a common culture. As we havealready seen, "interaction" isa process by which communicating individuals influence each others' thoughtsand activities. All of this interaction must be ordered or organized some way;according to some framework--- We refer to this frame work as socialstructure.

Social structure is the organization ofsocial positions and the distribution of people in them. Our text definessocial structure as "the way in which a society is organized intopredictable relationships"

It's important to realize that weare not concerned with personalities but positions; e.g., facultymember; short stop; half-back; President of the U.S., etc. (This is not as easyas it seems--- Think of the President. What thoughts fill yourmind? Now think of the president who served before Clinton.What kinds of thoughts enter your mind? It is difficult to separate the man fromthe position).

The basic components ofsocial structure are: Statuses; Roles; Groups; and Institutions.We've already discussed six basic social institutions:

1. FAMILY-- caring for theyoung

2. EDUCATION-- transmitting culturalknowledge from one generation to the next

3. RELIGION-- reaffirming the values thatbind people together

4. POLITICS-- governing people, maintainingorder

5. ECONOMY-- providing food, shelter, andnecessary services

6. RECREATION--entertainment/ recreation/relaxation

There are two levels of socialstructure: 1.) Micro level: small, interpersonal level-- dorm life;organizational network in the office. 2.) Macro level: the "BigPicture" how does it fit into society? (Therelationships between components of society -- education in American Society).

Example: The Prison

Micro level: Look at aprison. We see that it's comprised of administrators, guards, and prisoners.There's also an elaborate set of rules governing the relationships between thethree. But when we look deeper we find more. There's an informal network amongthe prisoners and they divide themselves into many different categories andthese categories describe what they do in the prison. Here are some of thepositions in prison argot: (Sykes and Messinger)

toughs:those who quarrel easily and fight without cause

gorilla: those whouse violence to obtain their goals

merchant orpeddler: buys and sells goods; exploits fellow prisoners by manipulation,not force

wolf or fa*g:prisoners who enter into hom*osexual relationships (label applies to the rolethey take) [Tusk hogs at Richmond State Pen.?]

squareJohn: they conform to the values of the greater society (in effect, supportprison officials)

rator squealer: informers

realman or right guy: quiet; doesn't talk; doesn't push people around, but canhandle the toughs and the gorillas; doesn't let other prisoners down--- i.e.the Clint Eastwood type

The importance of this is thatsome prisoners assume much admired roles-- the real men; while others areconsidered scum-- the rats. The problem for prison administrators is tomaintain order and control when they are in the minority--- more prisoners thanguards. Prisoners certainly don't obey from love or respect. They are at thelegal limits of coercion. How do they do this, then? They allow the breaking oftrivial rules in exchange for cooperation. They allow an "informal socialstructure" to develop where prison leaders (prisoners, themselves) have asay in what goes on. In May, 1980 very violent riots took place in theNew Mexico State Pen. Why? The informal structure was disrupted. Cries ofpolitical corruption booted out leaders to other prisons and left the prisonerswithout leaders. As a result, the toughs and gorillas took over-- machocontests. A riot ensued: When the authorities tried to negotiate, they foundthat they had to deal with several different groups of prisoners.

The Macro Level: Here wewouldn't focus on the internal workings of a particular prison, but rather howprisons fit into the larger society.

<![if !supportLists]>·<![endif]>What is the purpose of prisons (containment andisolation; punishment; retribution; rehabilitation)?

<![if !supportLists]>·<![endif]>What percent of the U.S.population is in prison? (over 1,000,000 in prison on any given day in U.S.-- a% greater than most countries; well over 1 million on probation/parole).

<![if !supportLists]>·<![endif]>What types of prisons are there?

<![if !supportLists]>·<![endif]>What are the characteristics of prisoners-- age,sex, religion, race?

<![if !supportLists]>·<![endif]>Are prisons overcrowded? (From 1993 WorldAlmanac: It is estimated that state prisons were 16 to 31 percent abovetheir capacities in 1990.

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The Components of Social Structure--Some Terms:

status:refers to a position in the social structure; Each person possesses severalstatuses, age, sex, race, occupation, nationality, son, daughter, mother,father, etc.

masterstatus: This is the basic one in giving you a sense of who you are.Think of the question, "Who and what are you, what do you do?"(Usually its a job).

ascribedstatus: This one has been assigned or given to us and we can't changeit easily-- race, sex, age, etc.

achievedstatus: It is earned by us; Doctor, Lawyer, college graduate, etc.).

socialclass: Roughly a social class consists of people who occupy thesame status in society. (Marx -- depends on relationship to the means ofproduction (job); Weber-- status group, people who share similar interests, atti tudes, likes, and dislikes).(College professors can have different life-styles; one goes to bars and basketball games while the other goes to fancy restaurants and classical musicconcerts). According to Weber garbage collector and factory owner can bothbelong to the same status group if they both like Mozart and have similar likesand dislikes.

roles: Rolesare socially prescribed ways of acting in a particular status. They involvecertain behavior patterns, obligations and privileges. We play a different rolefor each of the different statuses we occupy. Usually one status (say Presidentof the U.S.)has many different roles assigned to it. (Run country, veto bills, State of theUnion Address, commander of armed forces, submit budget to Congress, greetforeign dignitaries, etc). We call this a role set.

role set: Each statususually has several roles attached to it-- Doctor as medical professional;Doctor as nurse supervisor; Doctor as instructor to other Doctors; Doctor asmedical researcher; Doctor as hospital administrator; Doctor as surgeon.

rolemodel: A person who occupies a status and plays the roles associatedwith that status in the way that we would like to play them. (Sortof an ideal). Be able to hit the ball like Ted Williams or MickeyMantle.

roleexpectations: social norms that define how a role should be played.(What is an English Profes sorsupposed to teach? How are children expected to behave in front of company?)

roleperformance: actual role behavior--- how well we actually play the roleswe have.

rolestrain: difficulties that result from the differing demands andexpectations associated with the same social position (status). The Captain ofa Navy ship has many roles. One of them is to maintain high morale among theofficers and crew. Another is to accomplish the assigned mission or task. Oftenthese two are incompatible, and it's hard to meet role expectations.

roleconflict: Difficulties that occur when incom patible expectations arise from two or more socialpositions (statuses) held by the same individual. For example; a priest hearingconfession--- a man comes in and confesses to killing the President of the U.S.Here, two different roles, associated with two different statuses-- (priest'sconfidentiality vs his role as a responsible citizento report a crime to the police) have two roles which are in conflict. How manypeople have seen the movie Ser geant York?Gary Cooper has serious doubts about joining the Army. In fact, he won't do ituntil those doubts are settled. (Man of God vs. soldier expected to kill). Hewill not assume that second status (soldier) until he resolves the dilemma. Hewas trying to avoid role conflict by not assuming the position (status) ofsoldier. How does he re solve this problem? He decides that a man of God can,and must, under certain circ*mstances, kill. In other words the roles do notnecessarily con flict. Once he resolves this dilemmahe readily accepts the second status which is that of soldier.

groups:A group is a number of people (three or more) who interact together in anorderly way on the basis of shared expectations about each other's behavior.Note the distinction between group and category. The latter are people whoshare the same characteristic-- red hair, for example. Note that a group ismore than a simple aggregate-- people who happen to be at the same place at thesame time.

primarygroup: relatively small number of people who interact over a relativelylong period of time on an intimate, face-to-face basis. These groups are thebuilding blocks of social structure families, roommates, husband and wife, peergroup, small town, or neighborhood.

<![if !supportLists]>·<![endif]>very large populations, 100 million or more

<![if !supportLists]>·<![endif]>highly complex division of labor

<![if !supportLists]>·<![endif]>family and kinship become less important

<![if !supportLists]>·<![endif]>influence of religion weakens

<![if !supportLists]>·<![endif]>wide diversity of values and beliefs

<![if !supportLists]>·<![endif]>importance of science as institution increases

<![if !supportLists]>·<![endif]>education becomes distinct institution

<![if !supportLists]>·<![endif]>mass literacr(requires formal education)

<![if !supportLists]>·<![endif]>reduction in inequality

<![if !supportLists]>·<![endif]>incidence of warfare decreases

<![if !supportLists]>·<![endif]>more and more social life occurs in secondarygroups

<![if !supportLists]>·<![endif]>problems with pollution, resource depletion,social disorganization

Contents

The Distinction BetweenPre-Industrial and Industrial Societies:

EMEINSCHAFTGESELLSCHAFT (Ferdinand Tonnes)
(community)(association)

MECHANICALSOLIDARITYORGANIC SOLIDARITY (Durkheim)

FOLKSOCIETYURBAN SOCIETY (Robert Redfield)

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Section II: The Importance ofSocial Groups

Groups areimportant to sociologists because most of our day-to-day activities are spentin the company of other people in a group; whether it beat home, at school, or at work. There are virtually countless groups insociety. They vary in size, but almost everybody belongs to a largenumber of them. For example, you may think that it would be difficult to name25 groups that you belong to. But VCU students have easily provided thefollowing:.

VCU Student Body	Suite/Dorm Mates	English Class	Spanish Class	Math Class
Sociology Class	Biology Class	Class of 2000, etc.	Immediate Family	Extended Family
Sports Team/Club	High School Class	Bank	Auto Club (AAA)	Auto Insurance Co.
College Meal Plan	Neighborhood	Religious Affiliation	Political Party	Employment Group
Fraternity/Sorority	Peer Group (Friends)	Academic Program	Video Club	Internet Access

Most of our socialization occurs ingroups. In groups we learn to enact various roles and most roles have meaningonly within the context of groups. Example:

Leader: Leader of what? (Band, class, parade, military organization, sports team, etc.). All these examples involve groups.

Mother/Father the family (another group)

Treasurer, Secretary, President (club; company)

Teacher class (also a group)

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Definition of a Group:

A group is simply a collection of people who: 1.) Interact on a fairly regular basis; 2.) occupy specific status's and know the roles expected of those status's; 3.) Show general agreement on goals, rules, values; 4.) Have a sense of shared identity.

Classification of Groups:

Primary Group: The primarygroup is very important to the development of the human as a social being. Itis the locus of our socialization. Some of the characteristics:

A high degree of intimacy among members (promotes loyalty). Face-to-face, personal interaction
Relatively small size (usually less than 20 people)
Great emotional depth
The group tends to last a long time to endure.

Examples of primary groups:

the family
street gangs
play groups
certain social clubs (fraternities, sororities, etc.)
sports team

Secondary Group: Thesecondary group reflects characteristics that are the opposite of the above. Itis large, formal and impersonal group that does not display socialintimacy. Key attributes:

Far less intimacy, much more impersonal large, more bureaucratic;
Usually formed for a specific purpose;
People relate to each other not so much face to face but according to specific positions (and roles).
Relationships between individuals are not emotional but are based upon calculation
We join these groups for what they can do for us, not what they mean to us.

Examples of secondary groups:

civic organizations
college classes
work groups task forces
auto club (AAA)
business corporations
government departments
the Army (but not the squad or platoon)
the bank

In-groups and Outgroups: (This concept was firstdeveloped by William Graham Sumner when he spoke of "we"and "they" feelings. The "in-group" is the group that webelong to (or feel that we belong to). The "out group" is one that wefeel we don't belong to, (and act as if we wouldn'twant to belong). In-group feelings promote group solidarity and, in some cases,group superiority. I know a Virginia Tech graduate whose license plate reads:"NOT UVA". (U.Va. graduates willchide their Tech friends with comments like; "Joe didn't go to college, hewent to Tech."

Reference Groups: Areference group is any group of people that individuals use as a standard forevaluating themselves and their own behavior (Schaefer). The term"reference group" was coined by Herbert Hymen in 1942 in a study ofsocial class. Hymen discovered that what people perceived their social statusto be could not be predicted solely from factors of income and levels ofeducation. A person's self evaluation depended upon the groups used as aframework for judgment. In many cases individuals modeled their behavior aftergroups to which they did not belong. Reference Groups can be primary orsecondary groups:

Reference Groups fall into three categories:

Those in which we hold official membership (VCU).
Those to which we would like to belong (Nobel Prize Winners; Olympic Atheletes; Good Parents, etc.)
Those we reject and don't want to belong to. (Crooked Politicians, Deadbeat Spouses, etc.)

Reference groups may vary fromsituation to situation. Example: You got a "C" on your last test. Sowhat? Is that good or bad. What class was it? Sociology or OrganicChemistry? In this case we compare ourselves to the rest of the class. A"C" in Psychology may not be so hot; but a "C" in organicmay be great. "C" is a respectable grade if everybody else got"D's" and "F's."

Subdivisions of reference groups:

Normative: This group sets the standards for our own actions.
Comparative: We use this group to judge our performance How well did I do in comparison to the other members of the class?
Audience: We can adjust our behavior with regard to how the group reacts to what we say and do.

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Leadershipin Groups:

All groups (primary andsecondary) tend to have leaders-- people who areable to influence the behavior of others consistently.

What makes a leader? It's difficult to say whatspecific personal characteristics are important. The argument that"leaders are born not made" doesn't hold water, but there are somephysical characteristics that seem to emerge often among leaders: (Ofcourse, there are numerous exceptions to the following):

Often they are taller: This may seem hard to believe, but American Presidents have tended to be taller than the average population Washington, Jefferson, Lincoln, (more recently, Reagan, Bush, and Clinton!) Of course, there are some major exceptions to this.
More attractive people are often found in leadership positions.
More intelligent people usually emerge as leaders.
Self-confident people tend to be leaders.
Sociable people tend to lead.
Assertive people, people who begin conversations emerge as leaders.

The situation is very important indetermining leadership. Usually by this we mean what the purpose of the groupis (what it does) and the skills that the leader has.

A good example of this is Capt.John Smith and the situation involving the Jamestowncolony in Virginia. The colony ofabout 105 settlers was in danger of being wiped out by famine, hostile indians, and poor leadership.Smith, by far was the ablest leader there experienced, brave, charismatic (hewas short 5'2"). But he was also brash and, at times, disrespectful toauthority. On the way across the Atlantic he had beenplaced under arrest and was not released until a month after the colonists hadlanded (Dabney, p. 2). After ainitial problems and the failings of other leaders, Smith was asked to takeover and organized the colony in the early years, 1607-1609. He was the mainreason why it survived. In 1609 he suffered a serious injury (gunshot woundaccidental) and returned to Englandin the Fall of that year. There were about 500colonists when he departed. The next Spring 60 colonists were left. (Indianhostility was the primary reason for the deaths most colonists starved todeath, others were massacred, still others succumbedto disease). It is questionable whether or not Smith could have fared anybetter than those who were left to lead the colony, but he was its best leader.

Small group research has shown thatthere are two types of leaders:

Instrumental leaders are goal oriented. They concentrate on the task at hand, and direct the group toward its goals. They perform what is called the "tasking function."
Expressive leaders concentrate on maintaining harmony among group members. They perform what is often called the "maintenance function."

Usually, when a group is formed,both these functions are assumed by one person, but as time goes on they splitand a new person usually emerges to take over the maintenance. One reason forthis is that the instrumental leaders tend to lose popularity they telleverybody what to do and give them a hard time if it's not done.

Styles of leadership: Usually, you'll findthat leadership has been divided into three separate kinds:

Authoritarian: One person or a small group of people have total control and give all the orders. An authoritarian style of leadership is especially effective in emergency situations where action must be quick, coordinated and effective. This is precisely the kind of leadership one finds in the military, where one person has "authority" to make decisions (at various levels) and there is a definite chain of command to follow. (Culturally, In the United States this form of leadership is not the most effective in the small group situation, because it leads to dissension and in fighting.)

Democratic: Here the leader attempts to win consensus on his decision before carrying it out. "Is everybody happy?" This form of leadership generally works well in small groups and in countries like the United States where people value the opportunity to have a say in the final decision. However, it is not applicable to certain situations. Can you imagine the Captain of a ship taking a vote every time the ship needed to change course?

Laissez-faire (Virtually "Hands-off" leadership) In this case, there is a designated leader but he/she lets the group run itself.

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Group Size:

TWOPERSON GROUPS OR "DYADS"

Perhaps one of the most importantcharacteristics of a group is its size. Size determines the kind ofinteraction that occurs within a group-- basically how the group works. The smaller the group, the more intense the interaction.Group conformity is very strong in a small group.
A German sociologist, Georg Simmel (1858-1918) is perhaps the first to emphasize theimportance of interaction processes within groups. He pointed out that as agroup grows in size, it must develop "forms and organs which serve itsmaintenance and promotion." These forms and organs are things that asmaller group doesn't need. On the other hand, small groups have qualities thatdisappear when groups grow larger. (Schaefer, 1983).

The smallest group is the dyad, (a two persongroup). Here the emotional level is very intense because the two people inthe group depend on each other for existence of the group. One reason for thisis that you can't hide responsibility for things that occur within the confinesof the dyad. (It's either you or me, and I know I didn't do it). Simmel pointed out that the thought of termination of thegroup hangs over a dyadic relationship perhaps more than any other type ofrelationship. (Schaefer, 1983).

THREE PERSON GROUPSOR "TRIADS"

In Triads or three person groups,many of these qualities change. In many respects, a whole different worldexists. ("If it's not me, it's gotta beyou!" no longer exists).

Coalitions two against one can form.

The third person can act as a mediator and bind the other two together (a child settling an argument between its parents).

"Divide and rule" strategy can emerge where one individual can pit the other two against each other. (Ask the class if they had any difference between two and three roommate situations.

"SMALLGROUPS"

Small Groups: When we refer to "smallgroups," we mean that there are sufficiently few members that all memberscan relate to each other as individuals According to Theodore Caplow, the upper limit of such groups is about 30 people.(Our text seems to imply that 20 people is the largesta primary group can become).

Small groups can either be primary or secondary.

While still considered "small", once a group gets to be above 12 people or so, there is a need for a leader to serve the purpose of channeling communication. (Studies have shown that 7 people can do well without a leader for this purpose).

The larger the group, the greater the necessity to rely upon rules and regulations to guide behavior in the group. As size increases, the structure becomes more rigid and formal. (Written rules and regulations emerge to guide behavior-- Such groups are called "formal organizations").

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GroupFormation:

Why do groups form in the firstplace?

Goal achievement: Very often, groups are formed for the purpose of getting something done. (IBM, FORD, GM; The Environmental Protection Agency)

Proximity: How do you make friends, in the first place? Unless you're strange, you tend to meet and make friends in the immediate circle of your personal contacts. (There are some people who live in a big city and have no friends in that city, but do maintain an extensive friendship network of pen pals, or other friends through CB or Amateur radio).

Similarity: People who share the same likes, dislikes, values, beliefs, etc., will often form clubs and social networks.

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Group Boundaries:

How does a group define its own boundariesso that it can distinguish itself form the surrounding population or othergroups? In some cases it's easy as the groups adopt badges, emblems,uniforms, etc. which they wear or display and serve to distinguish them fromthe surrounding population. (Fire Department, Police, Military, all are goodexamples). In other cases, the differences are not as obvious and we have tospend a little more time studying a group before we can tell whatcharacteristics its members have adopted to distinguish itself from thesurrounding world. Here are some examples:

argot (language, slang, key phrases)-- Many groups and organizations have their own slang or terminology. The military, in particular, is known for its use of acronyms (words made up of initials from longer phrases). Naval personnel are very familiar with words like "BUPERS" (Bureau of Personnel) or "BUMED" (Bureau of Medicine) there's even a "DICNAVAB" (Dictionary of Naval Abbreviations)!

subtle elements of dress or personal appearance-- the business suit and briefcase vs blue jeans and flannel shirt. (Do professors of business and law dress differently from their colleagues in engineering, sociology and psychology?

By establishing norms of physicalappearance groups reinforce their boundaries and developea sense of "we" (the in-group) and "they" (the out-group).

There are also other ways that group identity isreinforced. "Rites of passage" are special ceremonies thatemphasize the importance of joining or forming a group. Special holidaysand "anniversaries" (Independence Day or July Fourth, for example)reinforce group identity. The wedding ceremony is one "rite ofpassage" that marks the formation of a new group in our society. Atanother level, to become a citizen when you're born outside the U.S.requires lots of studying, a written exam, and usually an elaborate"swearing-in" ceremony).

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Group Decision Making:

Which is better at making adecision-- a group or an individual? Research on this question indicatesthat the answer depends on the kind of task that is involved: Taskscan be divided into two different kinds: determinate and indeterminate:

Determinate tasks have one definite solution that is quickly apparent. Designing an automobile, or bridge or even doing a simple crossword puzzle are examples of such tasks-- There is one correct solution. Goups can perform these tasks more quickly because they have a larger pool of talent and experience.

Indeterminant tasks do not have immediately apparent correct decisions. Selecting applicants for college admissions or choosing job applicants are examples of indeterminant tasks and it is not clear whether groups out-perform individuals in these situations.

The Risky Shift:Groups tend to make riskier decisions than individuals. It ishypothesized that when in a group, responsibility for the decision is"diffused" among the members. Individuals are more visiblyaccountable for the decisions that they make alone. Thus, individualdecision-making tends to be more conservative.

Group Think: Inside the group, there isnormative pressure to conform and produce unanamousdecisions. This pressure may cause people to ignore or play downinformation that goes against group norms guiding the decision process."Don't rock the boat" is a good example of this. Group Thinkcan have disasterous consequences. (Somewriters have pointed to U.S.policy in Vietnamas an example of this, where Congress was slow to question involvement in thewar). Schaefer has a great example of how the Persians avoided thedangers of "group think." They decided an important issue twice.First, they would address the issue while sober. Then they would getdrunk and revisit it. (The idea being that alcohol, as a releaser, would removepeople's inhibitions against opposing group norms)!

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Group Size; Communication,Conflict, and Cohesiveness:

As we've seen, in a two personarrangement (a dyad), the members are totally dependent on each other, but in atriad, alliances can form and an individual can benefit from a disagreementbetween the other two members.

As group size increases, the total number ofpossible relationships increases from

One in a two person group
Twenty-five in a four person group
966 in a seven person group
28500 in a ten person group
We actually have a formula to use when computing the total number of possible relationships:

R = ((3ⁿ 2ⁿ⁺¹) + 1) / 2

When a group starts getting upbeyond seven members, leaders start dominating communications and the group'sprocedures become more formal. When a group starts getting very large,certain things start happening. It tends to become less less cohesive and there is anincrease in internal conflict. Of course there are exceptions to this.

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Formal Organizations:

A formal organization has beencommonly defined to be a large social group that is deliberately and rationallyformed to achieve specific objectives. Private compamies like IBM or public agencies like theInternal Revenue Service are good examples. Generally, formalorganizations share the following characteristics:

A collective identity or name
A charter or "vision statement" which outlines its purpose
A list of members
An Organization Chart or some other means of defining the organizational hierarchy

Formal organizations can be voluntary(People join of their own will-- political parties, churches, etc.); coercive(People are forced to join the draft, attend schools or some alternative formof schooling); or utilitarian (People join for practical purposes work ing for IBM).

Bureaucracy: When we speak of formalorganizations we usually think of bureaucracy and the work of Max Weber. Bureaucracyis the part of a formal ogranization responsible forplanning, coordinating, and supervising work. Essentially, it is the formalorganization's administrative arm.

Common sense may tell us that bureaucracies areinherently inefficient but Weber points out that overall, they are veryefficient in doing what they're supposed to do-- distrributingvast amounts of information and material across a large area. Still, weare all aware of bizzarre things that can happen inbureaucracies: The Department of Defense has come under intense scrutinyfor $2000.00 toilet seats and $500.00 hammers, for example.

Max Weber applied his concept of "idealtype" to the study of bureaucracy and found that the typical bureaucracyhas the following features:

1. Clearly defined and specificpurposes with associated rules and regulations which govern the behaviorof officials.

2. A well defined division of labor with peopleassigned to do different tasks.

3. Offices and authority arranged in a hierarchy. (Pyramidal authority).

4. The members of the bureaucracy are personallyfree. That is they are contractual workers and are paid for their work. (Theycan quit the job if so inclined).

5. People are promoted (or moved up) based uponseniority, performance, or both. Initially they are hired on basis of technicalcompetence in the particular job they seek.

6. Workers perform their job in a disciplined andimpersonal manner tend to treat people as cases.

7. The bureaucracy maintains a set of detailedwritten records or files.

8. Individuals are committed to their"office." Example; an artist is committed to his craft a bureaucratto his desk.

Dysfunctions of Bureaucracy:

Inefficiency-- Despite the fact that they are designed to be efficient, bureaucracies create "red tape" which often seems to slow down what should be very simple tasks.
Bureaucracies do not handle exceptional cases very well because they are set to meet "standard requirements").
"Trained incapacity" is a term that refers to the fact that workers in a bureaucracy are so narrowly trained that they can't handle problems outside one' own specific position.
Bureaucrats become focused on their own internal workings and may tend to forget the major problem that they were created to solve in the first place. (A special government commission formed to do one task may spend much of its time trying to perpetuate or even expand itself).
Communications may be slowed as they must travel along a large number of offices to get to those responsible for carrying them out.
Individual personalities may be repressed by the formality of the position a person holds.
Parkinson's Law: Work expands to fill the available time allotted for completion. Therefore there is a tendency for an organization to grow.
Peter Principle: Employees tend to get promoted to positions above their levels of competence. (They get promoted above their capabilities).
Michels' Iron Law of Oligarchy: In a bureaucracy, leaders and managers tend to promote people similar to themselves and eventually, power becomes concentrated in the hands of a few.

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